RussianAcademy of Sciences
Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation
National Strategy of Biodiversity
Conservation in Russia
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Moscow 2001-
The National Strategy of Biodiversity Conservation in Russia was approved at the National Forum on the conservation ofliving nature (Moscow, June 2001).
The text of the Strategy was jointly discussed by representatives of academic and applied research institutes, institutions of higher education, ministries and departments, public organizations, business sector, deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.
Cote.n
Introduction: Mission and Subjects of the Strategy 5
t. Specific Features of Biodiversity in Russia and Socio-Economic Conditions 7 Influencing It
1.1. General Characteristic of Biodiversity in Russia 7 1.2. Social and Economic Conditions Influencing Biodiversity 10
1.3. Principal Trends of Human Impact on Biodiversity 12
2. General Approach to Biodiversity Conservation. Objects and Goal of the t 3
Strategy 2.1. Concept of Sustainable Development and Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 13
2.2. Objects of the Strategy 15 2,3. Goal of the Strategy 16
3, Biological Principles of Biodiversity Conservation t 7 3.1. Organismic Princip(e 17 3,2. Populational Principle 18 3,3. Species Principle 20 3.4. Biocenotic Principle 21
3.5. Ecosystemic Principle 22 3,6. Territorial Principle 23 3,7. Biosphere Principle 24
4. Socio-Economic Mechanisms for Realization of the Strategy 25 4.1. Principles of Application of Socio Economic Mechanisms to Biodiversity Conser- 25
ration
4.2. Formation of Public Concsiousness. Education and Propaganda 27
4.3. Legal Mechanisms 30 4,4. Economic and Financial Mechanisms 34 4,5. Improvement of the Management System for Exploitation and Conservation of
Biodiversity 36 4,6. Scientific Research 38
4.7. Monitoring Biodiversity 40
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5. Priority Actions at the Federal Level 42 5.1. Basic Principles of Criteria for the Identification of Priority Actions 42 5.2. Current State of Biodiversify and Measures for Its Conservation 43
5.2.1. Species Conservation 43 5.2.2. Conservation of Ecosystems 45
5.2.2.1. Ecosystemsof PolarDeserts, Tundrasand Forest Tundras 45 5.2.2.2. ForestEcosystems 47 5.2.2.3. Ecosystemsof Forest-Steppes, Steppesand Semi Deserts 49 5.2.2.4. MountainousEcosystems 52 5.2.2.5. Marineand CoastalEcosystems 53 5.2.2.6. FreshwaterEcosystems 55 5.2.2,7. PeafiandEcosystems 57 5.2.2.8. Agroecosystems 59 5.2.2.9. Ecosystemsof Urban Areas 61 5.2.2.10. SoilConservation 62
5.3. Priority Species, Ecosystems and Regions with Special Conditions of Biodiver 65 sity Conservation 5.3.1. Priority Species 65
5.3.2. Priority Ecosystems 66 5.3.3. Priority Regions and Ecoregions 67
5.4. Challenging Economic and Other Activities 69
5,5, Development of the Network of Specially Protected Natural, Historical, and 70 Cultural Territories
6. Implementation Of the Strategy 7t 6.1. Mechanisms of Strategy Implementation, Control and Correction 71
6.1.1. Action Plan 71
6.1.2. Control and Effeciency Criteria for the implementation of the Strategy 72 6.1.3. Analytical and Informational Support of the Strategy 72 6, 1.4. Sources for Funding Nature Conservation Programs 72
6.2. Approaches to the Elaboration of Regional Strategies and Action Plans for 73 Biodiversify Conservation
6.3. international Co-operation 74
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Introduction
A threat of the global ecological crisis of animals and almost 7 thousand speci_ _i .p at the break of the 20th century dictates plants are included in the IUCN Re_d_t-ist '_ the necessity fo elaborate a strategy for (2000). The extinction of 484 animal a_ 654 optimal coexistence of man and nature, plant species has been documented since The adoption of many important decisions 1600. In fact, several times this number have
in the field of ecology by the UN Confer- disappeared or undergo a threat of extinc- ence on the Environment and Develop- tion. ment (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) and signing A further decline in bfodlverslfymay lead
of the Convention on Biological Diversity to destabilizafion of the biota, the loss of.' ; by many countries including Russia integrity of the biosphere and itsabiU_to proved to be key events in the history of maintain the principal characteristics (_:_he. mankind, environment. As a result of irrever_:)le :
By biological diversity in the context of transformation of the biosphere, it ma :yfbe'-_ the Convention is meant "the variability of come unsuitable for human life. The'm_te-:
living organisms from all sources including, nance of biological diversify on Earth an inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquat- indispensible prerequisite for the survival of
ic ecosystems, and ecological complexes man and sustainable development of civili-which include them as parts; this definition zation. _: includes also the diversity within species, Russia plays a key role in the cort_erv_- between species, and diversity of ecosys tion of global biodiversity and maintenance rems." of major functions of the biosphere because
Impaired biodiversity is a most important its vast territory still supports the largest
environmental problem facing mankind, natural ecosystems and a consider,_J31epart Many natural ecosystems have been de of the world's biodiversify. stroyed which resulted in the extinction of The National Strategy and the Action;_
living organisms associated with them. One- Plan for biodiversity conservatio n _Russi_ fifth of the Earth's land surface has suffered have been elaborated to promO_ balfill-_, * a complete change of natural ecosystems, merit of the country's commitmeritS? :: Thousands of plant and animal species are member of the Convention on B olog,cal, .
now threatened: over 9 thousand species Diversity. ,_
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National Strategy is a document of long-term planning.
National Strategy determines principles, priorities, and policies of the country con- earning biodiversity conservation.
The Action Plan, a system of concrete measures and actions aimed at biodiversity conservation, is worked out on the basis of National Strategy
National Strategy determines main lines of elaboration of legislative and normative ,;/J;legalacts, a system of organizational, administrative, financial, and economic mech
anisms to ensure conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, conservation strat- egies for particular species and ecosystems, action plans and strategies of govern mental, public and commercial bodies to the same effect·
DTheStrategy expresses common aspirations of the Russiansociety to safeguard biodi versify thus opening the possibility {or active participation of all interested parties.
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_' Being a document of national scope, the Strategy is designed to envolve a wide range of subjects:
Legislative, executive, and judicial bodies at federal and regional levels.
Local self-government bodies.
Companies and enterprises engaged in industrial production, construction, extrac-
,_ tion and trteatment of natural resources, agriculture, forestry, fishery and hunting, _. transportation and communication, trade, and communal services.
_' 0 Banks and other financial structures.
Mass media.
4 *· Educational, cultural, scientific, and public health facilities.
_'_ Political parties and movements.
Religious confessions.
Russian and international public organizations.
Foreign juridical and physica{ persons acting on the territory of the Russian Federa- tion.
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1.SpecificFeaturesof BiodiversillyinRussiaandSoclo..EconomlcConditionsI fluencingIt
1. Specific Features of Biodiversity in Russia and Socio-Economic Conditions Influencing It
A vast territory occupied by Russia(17 million sq. km), its highly diverse natural and socio-economic conditions, and enormous length of land and sea frontiers taken together account for a unique scope of problems facing the nation in the field of biodiversity conservation.
/' /" °neral Cha'acte'Zrtic °I {Jossia8iofversit , The diversity of non-tropical natural ervoirs is 6Sthousand sq. km. Peatlandsand
ecosystems of Eurasia (polar deserts, tun marshesoccupy 1.8 millionsq. km. They and dras, forest tundras, taiga, mixed and the lakes collectively cover ca. 15% of the broad-leaved forests, forest steppes, Russian territory (up to 85% in some re- steppes, semi-deserts, and subtropics) is gions). Thus, wet{ands are of primary impor- fully represented at the territory of Russia. fence for the formation of the natural phys There is an equally high soil diversity rang- iognomy of the country. lng from Arctic soils in the north to brown Russiaplays the leading part in the pro- semi-desert soilsand subtropical yellow soils tection of Arctic ecosystems and their biodi- in the south, versity. About a third of the entire Arctic
The territory of Russia is unique in that it zone is situated within the Russian sector features major planetary latitudina{ and zonal where the most typical territories of this re- trends of biodiversity (well apparent zonal gion support characteristic Arctic ecosys succession of natural ecosystems), tams and their complexes. About 80% of
Russia hosts more than a quarter of the the Arctic species diversity is represented primeval forests still remaining on Earth. in Russia, and almost 90% of the true Arctic Russian forests account for about 22% of forms live in the RussianArctic. the wor{d's forest resources and 40% of the About a quarter of the Russian territory most valuable coniferous stands. The total is occupied by mountains: they occur in 43 forest cover in Russia exceeds 6 million sq. of the 89 administrative regions of the Rus kin, with swamp forests occupying 1.5 mil sian Federation. Mountainous areas of Rus lion sq. km. sia feature a great variety of natural condi
Russiahas the largest wetland systems in tioins. the world with its almost 120 thousand riv Russia is bordered by 13 marginal seas of ers totalling 2.3 million km in length and three oceans (Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific). about 2 million lakes having a total area of The country's coastline stretches some 60 370 thousand sq. km (the Caspian Sea ex- thousand km, and is thus the world's Iong cluding). The area of man made water res est one.
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I. Feahwesof BIodhmrdtyinRuss andSoclo EconornlcConditionsInfluencingit
A major part of species diversity of temsaresfillviable(evenifparflydestroyed) Northern Eurasia, the largest land mass on and retain the potential for compensation Earth. is concentrated in Russia, at the current rate of anthropogenic chang-
The flora of Russia includes more than es.
12,500 species of wild-growing vascular About 15% of the territory of Russiaoc- plants, over 2,200 species ofmosses and cupied by two thirds of its population is liverworts, and ca. 3,000 species of lichens, considered to be ecologically unsafe as un- Soils and waters of Russia including seas dergoing progressive destruction of natu- give home to 7,000-9,000 species of lower ral ecosystems and soil degradation (urban plants (algae); the number of fungi amounts agglomerations, industrial, mining, and ag- to 20 -25 thousands, ricultural regions in the European part of
The vertebrate fauna comprises 1,513 Russia, the Urals, Siberia, andtheFar East). species, viz. 320 mammals, 732 birds, 80 In Russia, 124million hectares of agricultur- reptiles, 29amphibians, 343 freshwater fish- al land (56%) are vulnerable to or actually es, and 9 cyclostomates; in addition, there undergo water and wind erosion. are 1,500 marine fish species in Russianseas. The fauna of invertebrates comprises about Unlike many other countries, Russia 100 thousand species. Many of them are experiences relatively Iow anthropogenic endemic fo Russia. transformation of natural ecosystems on a
large part of its territory (northern and Asian Unique natural complexes designated regions). This accounts for the fact that
as UNESCO's natural and cultural heritage many of them remain virtually unchanged sites as well as centres of endemism are situ and may serve as standard natural features. ated at the ferrotory of Russia, such as Kur Thus far, many types of ecosystems appear skaya Kosa (Courland Spit), coastal waters to face no serious risk. Inthe first place, these of the Barenfs Sea, the Caucasus, virgin for are tundra, northern and southern faiga esfsinthenorthoffheEuropeanpartofRus biomes, and most Arctic seas only slightly sia and in Siberia, the Volga Delta, Caspian affected by human impact (with the excep Sea, Putorana Plateau, Altai, Lake Baikal, tion of certain areas subject fo intense eco Transbaikalia, southern quarters of the Rus- nomic developments). sian Far East (Primorye), Kamchatka and Generally speaking, species diversity in Chukchi Peninsulas, Wrangel Island, and Russia is also safe. Main faunistic and fioris other territories requiring special attention tic complexes of all landscape zones of the in the context of biOdiversity conservation country as well as freshwater and marine in Russia. ecosystems still survive.
According to the UNEPcriteria, 65% of Despite the apparent safety of biodi the territory of Russia remains virtually un- versify inRussia, some types of ecosystems changed by economic and other human and animal species are in a catastrophic activities and supports undisturbed ecosys state, that is on the verge of extinction. In terns, particular, the biomes of European steppes
Around 20% of the territory has suffered and broad leaved forests have almost dis considerable human impact, but its ecosys appeared, being represented today by
*Hereand hereinafterin the text of the Strategy, whenever a mention is madeof a sea,mountain systemorother largenaturalcomplexwhichoccupiesthe territoriesof severalcountries,itspart under the jurisdictionof the Russiangovernment isregarded asanobject of the Strategy.
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1.SpecificFeaturesof Biodiversity in Russiaand Socio-EconomicConditions Influencing It
small fragments at specially protected natu in the elaboration of a system of criteria for ral territories and military testing sites closed the choice of priority objects of biodiversi to the public. A large number of species are fy, organization of monitoring, and plan rare or endangered and require special at ning biodiversify conservation. tention. The Red Data Book of Russian Fed
eration lists 114 species and subspecies of Over 500 local breeds, populations, animals (Red Data Book. Animals, 2011 ); and stocks of agricultural animals of 36 spe- 516 plant species and 17 fungi are listed in cies are raised in Russia. Five hundred and the Red Data Book of RSFSR, 1988. fifty six of them are placed on
the state register of selected breeds rec- Natural ecosystems of Russia are of ex ommended for use in the year 2000. More
clusive value for the biosphere as they per- than 11,000 native varieties of plants are form the most important regulatory func cultivated. A shift to a system of agricul lions. The largest peafJands and swamp for lure using industrial techniques, chemical ests occur in Russia. They play a key role as fertilizers and pesticides in the last decades sinks of carbon facilitating its fixation and has had a marked levelling effect on agro maintenance of carbon dioxide balance in ecosystems and resulted in a decrease of the biosphere. Also, forests and peatlands their breed and species diversity. of Russia are the most important terrestrial regenerators of oxygen. High diversity of cultural landscapes
embodying harmony of man and nature is Northern ecosystems (tundra and characterisficofRussla(gardens, parks, fra
taiga) dominate the territory of Russia, es- ditional agricultural landscapes, areas of pecially its Asiatic part, due not only to geo sustainable use of natural resources by in graphic location of the country but also to digenous peoples, canal systems of histor- its continental climate and an extensive per ical value, man made forests, etc.). mafrost area in Siberia. These ecosystems are extremely vulnerable, slow in recover lng from disturbance, and highly subject to erosion where they are underlain by per- mafrost if their vegetation cover is de sfroyed. Ecosystems of northern seas and freshwaters are equally vulnerable.
A large part of the Russian territory is characterized by highly variable climatic conditions accounting for instability of its ecosystems. Marked annual and secular vari ations of environmental conditions lead to wide tiuctuations in the number and distri bution of many species.
Natural and climatic conditions of Rus
sia account for a relatively Iow species di- versify of natural ecosystems coupled fo high intraspecific and intrapopulation diver sity. This should be taken info consideration
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1.SpedficFeaturesofBiodJvers inRussia ndSocio-EconomicConditionsInfluencingIt
/.2. SocLoJ CodLtio, 8Lod eitq
The following social and economic factors ® Economic importance of biological re should be considered when addressing sources. Exploitation of forests, fish-stock, biodiversity conservation issues: game animals, and other bioresources plays
an important role in the national economy Highly heterogeneous social and eco- at large and the leading one in some regional
nomic conditions across the vast territory economies. Bioresources are vital for minor of the country: ethnic groups deriving subsistence from
uneven distribution of the population; their traditional use. differential orientation of regional econ- omies making them either essentially in- Widespread practice of indiscrete utili- dustrial, agricultural, mining or poorly de- zation of natural bioresources to fulfill im- veloped; mediate personal needs (hunting, fishing, multinational population incorporating gathering mushrooms, berries, food plants, over 50 indigenous minorities that adhere etc.). to traditional husbandary and practice dif- Poor state of knowledge and understand ferenf strategies of exploitation of bio- lng of the importance of biodiversity con- logical resources and biodiversity, servation.
Strongly utilitarian attitude towards liv e Resource-oriented economy: lng nature among Russians promoted by key industries relying primarily on the ex the recent economic crisis. Risk of further tensive exploitation of natural resources "deecologization" of public conscious- and power consuming technologies; ness. raw materials as a main export; Iow efficiency of economic and financial Conversion to free market economy; mechanisms for biodiversity conserva- transition from the centralized command lion, lack of measures and incentives by planning system to a private-enterprise which to make attractive the rational use economy regulated by market reecho- of natural resources and power-saving nisms with a degree of state involve- technologies; ment. rapid and high returns from over-exploi- tation of natural resources; Predominance of short and medium- failure to assess and recognize the value term priorities over long-term strategies in of biodiversity as a considerable portion government plans and plans of private corn- of the national wealth, ponies.
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1.SpecificFeaturesofBlod/versity/nRussiandSac/a-EconomicConclit/onsI tt
Absence of an integrated approach to Consequences of economic crisis of the exploitation of natural resources, Iow the 1990s: levels of elaboration and implementation of increased environmental repercussions programs and projects for comprehensive per unit of production (despite a decreas regional development, lng trend since 1966); higher resource
and power consumption for the coun Incomplete and contradictory legisla fry's gross output as a result of the pre
tion concerning nature use and protection, dominance of environmentally unfriend rights and duties of land owners and users, ly technologies in the production sector Limited applicability of many legal docu (resource consuming industries most merits and regulations, harmful for the environment were the last
A poorly defined law on separation of to suffer the decline); deterioration of property in natural objects under joint own basic stocks; poor technological disci ership of federal and regional bodies. Ab pline; sence of legal mechanisms for coordinated considerable cuts in investments in envi activities and treatment of debatable issues ronmental protection; concerning the use and protection of mi increased frequency of technogenic ca grating and other separable bioresources, tastrophes affecting biodiversity;
somewhat decreased human pressure on Ineffective application of the existing agroecosystems owing to the decline in
laws on biodiversity conservation, industry; reduction in the area of land under cultivation; abandonment of re
Low efficiency of state control and su mote pastures and hayfields; reestablish- pervlsion over nature conservation and use ment of woody vegetation on agricultur of natural resources; frequent reorganize al lands especially meadows; tion of governing bodies; decreased status increased pollution by domestic waste of nature conservation institutions; chronic and municipal effluents attributable to the shortage of budgetary funds allocated to wear and tear of sewage treatment nature conservation, equipment;
markedly increased poaching and its frans Poor development of the state system formation in many cases to an officially
for monitoring and statistics of the use of tolerated commercial activity undermin natural resources and environmental pro ing bioresources. faction. Inadequate inventory control dur ng the last years, impaired efficiency of The following facts are positive:
ecologJca_ and hygienic monitoring via a well-developed network of nature re- network of plague-control stations, polar serves and national parks occupying stations, forestry service, etc. Insufficient around 2% of the total area of the coun- or faulty information on the extraction of try; natural resouces and their abusive exploi- deep-rooted traditions of environmental ration, research.
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1.SpecificFeaturesof Biodivmsity in Russiaand SQciQ-.EconQmicCQnditionsInfluencing It
J 1.3. rinci)al.bends of ttumanJJqacton giodtersitq
Anthropogenlcfactorsandtheirnegative clear power stations, mining, agriculture effects on biodiversity are many and varie- (herbicides, pesticides, chemical fertilizers), gated. They may be arbitrarily categorized forestry (chemical weed and pest-killers), into two main groups, as follows: traffic, military facilities and operations, do-
mestic and municipal sources, technogenic Direct effects accidents (oil spills), launching missiles, and
Decimation of animal and plant popula also carried by aerial transport (e.g. acid lions resulting from overexploitation, abu rains). siveandillegalexploitafion;commercialhar Biolo l etsmanifest as man-in- vesting of living organisms; unwise and non duced changes in the structure of natu- selective pest control; animal mortality roi biocenoses and ecologically stable caused by collision with man-made con- natural-cultural complexes include delib- structions; destroying animals and plants erate or accidental introduction of alien considered dangerous, harmful or unpleas species and their self-dispersal; dissemi- ant fo people, nation of infectious diseases of plants
Destruction of natural biofopes resulting and animals; population explosions of from their transformation to agricultural certain animal species; potential penetra- lands (e.g. steppes put to cultivation); tion of natural ecosystems by genetical- changes in the make-up of forests and in ly ngineered organisms, eutrophication forestry itself; building; mining; draining of of water bodies, depletion of food re- wetlands; water and wind erosion of soils sources of animals.
promoted by human activities; construction As a rule, various human activities (ag- of hydro-electric power plants and wafer ricuJture, building, mining, transporta- reservoirs; disappearance of small rivers, lion, industry, recreation, harvesting,
etc.) have both direct and indirect effects Indirect effects are changes in the nat- on natural ecosystems. The latter may act
ural environment of living organisms. They on several targets at a time. Therefore, an- are largely exerted along the following thropogenic impacts are often cumulative three lines, or synergefic.
._/u/.,_o./ , i.e. changes in physical It is important fo dstinguish between man- characteristics of the environment, include induced changes of biodiversity and natu- alteration of soil and ground physical prop- roi processes of its formation. Natural effects erties; regulation of river channels; overex- should be considered when it comes to the ploifation of water bodies as sources of elaboration of biodiversity conservation water supply; seismic surveys and explo- programs, but there is no much sense in at- sion works; effects of electro-magnetic tempts to block them even if possible. fields, noise and thermal pollution. Those anthropogenic factors should be
C/-__._;_al */De , i.e. pollution of wa- controlled in the first place which are cru- , ter, air and soils with waste matter generat- cial for biodiversity or apt to most seriously
ed by industry, power plants including_,_- affect it,
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2. General Approach to Biocliversitly Conservation. Objects and Goql oftlhe Strategy
2. General Approach to Biodiversity Conservation.
Objects and Goal of the Strategy
2. I. Concaht o]%gustainable _avelo/_snent and gio&versitq Conservation Strategq
The Strategy of biodiversity conserva- all its components is ensured. Violation of ! tion should be considered as an element of this condition leads to the general crisis and the general trend of the country towards degradation of the society and nature. sustainable development. The Concept of The present-day ecological crisis arises transition of the RussianFederation to sus- from a neglect of natural laws governing the tainable development was approved by development of ecosystems and the socio the Presidential Decree No 440 of April 1, ecosystem itself by man pursuing what he 1996. The following theses of this Decree considers to be his vital interests without are important for the elaboration of the Na- regard for the damage he inflicts on the en- tional Strategy of biodiversity conserva- vironment. It should be recalled that nature tion: often responds to human impact with a de-
integration of society, economy and lay. Over exploitation of natural resources nature; may have important repercussions on the
importance of stable and maximally pre- quality of human life after many years, when dictable development of the country ex- degradation of the environment becomes _,_ cluding destruction and degradation of the irreversible. environment, Socialand economic developments at the
Conservation of biodiversity can be expense of suppression and decimation of _; achieved at a higher than ecosystemic lev- natural systems have led to the current eco- el, namely at the socio-ecosystemic level nomic crisis. The only way to overcome it is which comprises socio-economic and en- to recognize that the normal development vironmental constutuents. The socio-eco- of natural systems is a necessary prerequi- system remains stable provided the normal site for the sustainable existence of the so- development and harmonic interaction of cio-ecosystem, hence of man himself.
SOCIO-ECOSYSTEM
Socio-economic Natural
subsystem subsystem
Society
Economy
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2.GeneralApproachto BiodlversityConservation.ObjectsandGoaloftlhe ;i_,-'_ly
Biosystems perform functions vital for terns using a variety of biotechnologies in- mankind of which the following are most cluding agriculture. Many mineral deposits, important: such as oil, gas, and coal, are actually rem-
nants of past life forms that thrived at eralJer _r._t /G /_l_"_ consists of geologic periods.
the maintenance of biospheric processes and creation of favourable living conditions 3nformational ] ncttbn consists of the
¢ for man, such as clean air and water, suit- storage of information on the structure and able climate, and fertile soils. This function function of biological and ecological systems
_'_ is crucial for human existence. Life on Earth (including genetic information) accumulat- : is a result of long evolution and uninterrupt- ed in the course of a long evolution of bio I ed work of nature during billions of years, sphere. Today, man uses only a small frac-
The biosphere acts as a regulator and main- tion of this information in research and edu- rainscharacteristics of the environment with- cation and for the development of biotech- in a narrow range which happens to be ben- nologies. In the future, this function will ac-
j % eficial for man. quire an increasingly greater importance. Y
._z_"_._"_ consists of biologi- ..,('_'t aZ_nd__b_consists % :: cai production. Man obtains foods and raw of the enormous influence of living nature
: materials for various sectors of economy on the cultural development of mankind, for- (practicing forestry, fish marion of aesthetic and ethical views, and
hunting, etc.) and from artificial biosys creation of comfortable environment.
Sustainable existence of biosystems and efficient performance of the above func- tions is feasible due to biodiversify, Decreased biodiversity and the loss of key com-
,_ ponenfs of natural ecosystems lead to their dysfunction, instability, and eventual degradation.
The objectives of the Strategy and basic principles of biodiversity conservation
j should be established with due regard for specific features of biological systems, their structure, function, and evolution. The socio economic system determines possible mechanisms for the realization of the Strategy.
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2.GeneralApproachtoBiodiversltyConsewation.ObjectsandGoalof theStrategy
2.2. Ob/actso/tk Strateg,! The object of the strategy is initially des elements of the systems make up a system
ignated as biodiversity'. Thisnotion needs forming trait of this hierarchy. to be expounded. Solution of practical problems of b/odi
Living nature has a hierarchical struc- versify conservation should be based on lure, and its conservation calls for a specif- the following conceptual approaches: ¢_ ic approach at each level of organization. /zo/u4._bn-._,ct o _./z based on _. The current state of science and society al- the belief that each species is a minimal ge lows hierarchical levels from organism to netically closed system possessed of a biosphere to be considered for the practi- unique gene pool; this approach analyses _,. cai purpose of biodiversity conservation, genetically related systems of the popub- Two interrelated and overlapping but in lion-species hierarchy; * dependent hierarchies should be distin- co_/ t ach based on the con- guished: cept that all biological systems are insepa-
population/species hierarchy includes rably connected with their environment and systems consisting of individuals of the same with one another, and that naturally free- species: organisms, subpopulations, pop- riving organisms exist only as members of ulations, intraspecific forms, subspecies, ecological communities and ecosystems; species and species complexes; genetic links this approach analyses ecological systems between individual elements of the system at different leveJs. represent a system-forming character of this With these approaches, the following hierarchy; objects of the Strategy whose diversity
hierarchy of ecological systems includes needs protection are distinguished: organ communities of organisms, biocenoses, and ism, population, species, community of or- ecosystems of different spatial and tempo- ganisms, ecosystem, territorial complex of roi scale; ecological relations between the ecosystems, biosphere.
Objects of the Strategy and their internal diversity
Approaches Objects Interne/diversity of objects :
Organism Diversity of genes, cells, tissues and organs*
Intrapopulation diversity of organisms Population Population including genetic diversity species Population structural diversity
Diversity of populations, intraspecific forms Species and subspecies
Community of organisms Diversity of species
Ecosystem Diversity of species, communities and biotopes**
Territorial complex Ecosystem of ecosystems Ecosystem diversity
Biosphere Global species diversity Global ecosystem diversity
*Internal diversity of the organism is not considered in this Strategy within the framework of practical problems of biodiversity conservation. Conservation of abiotic environment is a necessary condition for the sustainable devel
opment of biodiversity.
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2.GeneralApproach to eiodlversffyConservation,ObjectsandGoalatfile Strategy
Most important in the context of the Strategy on biod/versity conservation is the diversity of systems at each hierarchical level conducive to the complexity and stability of systems at the next higher level. Conservation of internal biodiversity of biological systems is a necessary precondition for the conservation of these systems.
Objects of fha Strategy are both natural biodiversity (species, biocenoses, and eco- systems) and the diversity of domesticated and cultivated species of animals and plants, genetically engineered organisms, and man-made ecosystems (agroecosystems, ecosys tems of urban areas, artificial water reservoirs and forest stands, parks, gardens, etc.)
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_' _oal of tke Strateg_
Based on the Conception of sustainab}e development, the overall goal of the Strategy is
fi_ted as follows:
Conservation of diversity of natural biosystemsat the level ensuringtheir sustainableexistenceand sustainableuse,as well as conservation of the di versity of domesticated and cultivated forms of living organismsand man-
;, made ecologically balanced natural-culturalcomplexesat the level ensuring the of efficient and formation of optimal environ-development economy
ment for human life.
Conservat on of b odiversity is under- The goo of the Strategy determ nas ma- stood as a complex of active measures and jor lines of work for the foreseeab e future. actions to meet the goal of the Strategy in The desired characteristics of biodiversity
;< cluding direct measures for conservation, to be maintained within a given period are recovery and sustainable use of biodiversi- detailed in the Action Plan. They need to ty and application of socio-economic roach- be adjusted in light of events affecting biodi- anisms through which it is influenced by se- versify, changes of socio-economic situa lected groups of the population and ecu- tion, and progress in the realization of the nomic sectors. Strategy.
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3.BiologicalPrinciplesofBiodiversityConservation
3. Biological Principles of Biodiversity Conservation
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Biological systems of different hierarchical levels differ in terms of structure, function, and development. Therefore, principles of conservation flowing from a set of initial scientific premises, its major objectives and methods need to be identified for each hierarchical level.
3./. Organtmzb .rZnct Object: organism. Initial scientific premise: organisms are minimal self-contained life units capable of exist
ing in the environment end carriers of hereditary information determining basic traits and properties of the species.
Main objectives Conservation of organisms and conditions for their reproduction. Conservation of genotypes.
Methods of ex situ conservation
, / .ngandb TOfO_, /_'/eJz_ cryogenic gene, cell, and tissue banks, as nzu'ze.t z_,ZOOS,bo an_bol.q de/, ', and well as in seed banks. q stock ftzra,ts need methods to ensure C/,dt/Jcxat/.;0O S/'tec/_, Cultivation of
their natural and assisted reproduction, species declining from overuse may allevi eStorageofgene_bmatetZM:gametes, ate or remove the pressure from their natu-
zygotes, somatic ceils, and embryos, in roi populations.
The organismic principle allows to preserve only a part of genetic diversity of natu ral populations. As a rule, only selected organisms (their genetic material) or small groups of organisms are conserved in gene banks, various nurseries, and botanical gardens. Genetic diversity of even thriving populations originating from the organ- isms preserved in captivity or cryobanks arises exclusively from progenitor genes (excepting new mutations). A long-term breeding of small groups of organisms in captivity tends to interfere with gene exchange inherent in their natural populations and compromise genetic diversity. Cultivation is equally inefficient as a tool to con- serve the gene pool of species and their natural populations because it is fraught with significant changes of their properties and genetic structure.
The organismic principle may be considered as the leading one only when all other opportunities for safeguarding natural populations of a species have been exhausted.
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3.Bio g amr p ofE rs /Conserv on
d/,J Object:population. initial scientific premise: populations are a form of species existence, elementary units
of evolution possessed of a unique gene stock.
Population number is of crucial importance for sustainable existence. A population decline enhances the probability of stochastic extinction and compromises infra-pop- ulafion genetic diversity.
Genetic diversity, spatial, socio-ethological, age and sex structures of the popula- tion determine its stability, adaptability, and ability fo survive in the changing environ- mental. Conservation of genetic diversity of domesticated species, cultivated breeds and varieties is an important prerequisite for their effective economic exploitation and availability for further selection.
However, neither the number and nor the genetic diversity of a population is of itself sufficient to evaluate its condition because certain human impacts on natural sys- tems lead to a significant deterioration of the health of organisms, even if population numbers and genetic diversity remain unchanged for a time or even increase. Health status of organisms is an important indicator of the population well-being determining the possibility of their long-term sustainable conservation.
Conservation of natural environment typical for a population is another indispens able prerequisite for its effective long-term conservation.
Main objectives Conservation or restoration of population number and range at a level sufficient for sus- tainable existence and exploitation. Assurance of population well-being. Conservation of intra-population genetic diversity and genetic uniqueness of the popu- lation.
Maintenance of population structural diversity (spatial, ethological, social, sex, and age diversity).
Methods of ex situ conservation Methods of in situ conservation Qonsemation ofbaJudations of wild Co enlat ofbopalationsof ra .and
en , zoos, botan od 9ardm , _td g m Book of ewatdon,. motu or stock farms; implementation of optimal / t* of/_/_atio_ ofotl_ schemes for an exchange of organisms be /_.g_..ai_.d ._c_. Attention should be tween nurseries as a tool to maintain genet- given not only to the maintenance of popu- ic diversity in particular groups of organisms {afion numbers, but also to the conserve and a population as a whole, tion of population structure.
Here and hereinafter, monitoring and management are understood as a wide range of measures and techniques for population, species, and ecosystem control including pre vention of their illegal exploitation, rating of their [egal use for various purposes (recreation al, scientific, cultural, etc.), eco{ogical expertise of economic projects likely to affect biodi- versity.
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o/ ation conb olofcom, e e cia.lsJze dots for animals; the use of devices exclud- cts. When planning exploitation, the ne lng animal mortality on man made consfruc cessity of maintianing popu(afion sfabili fions. fy, genetic and structural integrity should feehnologz_al and or ?anizatz_nal be taken into account. This objective is esforz /w_,ent n of . J nor reached not only through the catch size taJi y during agricultural, felling, ameliora control but also by the evaluation of struc five, and other works; assistance fo animals rural characteristics of a harvested fraction in emergency situations (technogenic and of the population (sex, age, size, and oth natural disasters, weather anomalies, etc.) er variables). Conservation of population £1dm at n o[[actor$ ea v ng the structure and genetic diversity must be a mZD_ oforga_.s', such as chemical and major concern in any sustainable use sca radioactive pollution of the environment, nario, injurious harvesting techniques, depletion
Conservation and r oration of the of food resources, deterioration of hydro- entr ol nt, habt tat co ctt n. This logical conditions, and other environmen approach is imperative in regions with in- tel changes. The cause of the worsening tense economic activities. Decreased df health of the organisms should be identified versify and habitat area are a major cause and eliminated to ensure the long farm con of extinction of natural populations, If is servafion of the population. often necessary and sufficient fo reconsfl- _7/ $i 1 co zz*/.bn O l +l l of tute the environment and restore the lost dome [c a a/ s c t d/_im habitats naturally occupied by a popula- plies their keeping in initial conditions un- lion at risk fo ensure ifs maintenance and der which a given race, breed, or variety conservation, originated and developed. Maintenance of
Conservation on $J edallq/9_oPected typical agroecosystems, habitats, and na u._'al tern ton_s is one of the most effi- breeding conditions is a necessary prereq- cient methods for the conservation of rare uisife for the in sifu conservation of the di
or endangered populations including pop versify of forms and races. Territories where uJations of species listed in the Red Data a traditional economy is practiced may be Book of Russian Federation, In may cases, a used as an instrument of in sifu conserva specially protected natural territory needs tion if they are protected from import and to be established for the conservation of a introduction of alien breeds and varieties.
given population. In situ conservation techniques allow fo ,A.t.._d or i t l_,qtt,rod__6'tz onis combine protection and sustainable use of
an effective tool for the maintenance of nat local genetic resources of plants and ani ural populations whose natural rehabilitative reals, maintenance of traditional economies mechanisms have been undermined by and nature management, and sometimes overexploifation or disturbance (certain conservation of natural ecosystems (e.g. commercial, rare, and endangered species), grazing aboriginal livestock in steppe res- However, partial and especially total de ervafions).
pendence on artificial breeding is fraught r o ttbn o/_lu ,/bl idizatt n b._, with a disturbance of the population genetic p._oP,ected ors and .q / /_ , structure and impoverishment of ifs gene o/z_is crucial for the conserva pool. No effort should be spared fo recov- tion of natural populations, domestic ani er the population's potentai for natural re reals, and cultivated plants. production.
· ales to the o/udatios s add structure caused by engineering works (pipelines, highways and other roads, power lines, canals, dams, etc.); establishment of corri
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3. Bio/ogical Prindplesof Biodiversity Conservation
3.3 $/zecs Prmc Object: species. Initial scientific premise: species is a minimal genetically closed system carrying a unique
gene pool; as a rule, species exists as a system of interrelated local populations, infraspecific forms and subspecies.
Conservation of the population structure of a species is a necessary precondition for its stable existence and sustainable exploitation. Local populations, intraspecific forms, and subspecies are carriers of unique adaptations to specific environmental conditions. In order to maintain the spatial and genetic structure of a species, it is necessary fo ensure an extent of isolation of its populations and forms that takes place in nature. Both an exceedingly strict isolation and a break of the isolating barrier as well as artificial mixing are detrimental for populations and forms.
Main objectives Conservation of species numbers and range. Maintenance of spatial and genetic popuJation structure. Conservation of the diversity of populations and intraspecific forms (seasonal races, eco- logical forms, subspecies, etc.)
Methods of in situ conservation Uon_mation oft a ea d th ate d ulafion of the species needs to be recon-
$/aec d [1 kd Data ook o strucfed. t ia d_rafio , monitoring and Co atio o1 $ c[al/q o ect d management of other non-exploited spe- .aP..oaglto,rt_'on_a isone of the most efficient cies. Attention should be given not only methods for the conservation of rare or en- to the maintenance of numbers and range, dangered species occupying small areas. but also to the conservation of population This equally refers to a number of species structure, listed in the Red Data Book of Russian Fed
o/ da o control Ofco lze- erafion. c/. . When planning exploitation, not only eacc t a [O ro zt od ct[o the maintenance of species number at a o]°. ,/ / o/,'at/ o]°z_/t /o. /to/_zffo/ 5 . constant level should be considered but Reacclimatization should be done taking into also that of genetic and structural integrity account requirements of the species for a of its populations. Inter regional and infer specific environment (areas formerly inhab national co ordination of harvesting sfraf ired by the species, reconstructed or spe egies over the entire range of the species is cially selected new biotopes may be used mandatory, for the purpose). Also, the species genetic
Co serorat iotz and re.stoYat t o o]et Aa structure and potential repercussions of its o rt ro te z , habitat reco strt ct io , reacclimatization on natural ecosystems This approach is imperative in regions should be considered. Reacclimatization is with intense economic activities. Habi- especially valuable as a tool for safeguard tat rehabi)itation may be necessary if ing species listed in the Red Data Book certain important biotopes of the spe- whose numbers and range significantly de/ cies, e.g. breeding or wintering sites, creased in the past but tend fo recover at have been lost or when an extinct pop- present.
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3. Biologlr. l PHncipJes of Biodive Conservofion
L/_iO_/ 0 /C _r// ci/ I
Object: community of organisms.
Initial scientific premise: in nature, species live in close functional relation to other species; collectively, they give rise to a community of organisms.
Species diversity accounts for the complex structure of communities and their cea- eric relationships. The disappearance of some species and a decrease in species diver sity result in community degradation. Introduction of alien species either by man or through spontaneous dispersal may also lead to a change in the structure of natural communities· Their effective and long lasting conservation is feasible only if their intrin- sic species diversity is preserved with due regard for natural community dynamics.
Main objectives Conservation and restoration of communities. Conservation of species and functional diversity of communities, Maintenance of natural processes underlying formation of community structure and com position.
Methods of conservation Ont_f re.9_at ,n o O_#U O O- gone irreversible changes since the time of
.qot _.e_'e o c ,e e, tz_ . This objec species extinction. Reintroduction enhanc- tire is achieved in a variety of ways includ- es overall stability of the bJocenosis. Con- ing management of individual species, reg versely, reintroduction of a species into a ulation of recreational pressure, etc. A re- grossly a(tered biocenosis may be detri duction of human impact on biocenoses fo mental for its stability. the level atwhich communities still retain / o_'to,6_gand nage, nentof n their ability for self-recovery may be suffi ta d___al n a rna ation of cleat for their lasting conservation. e.l_. The main task is to prevent
,tT/_?o a/ d e ntofco the introduction of invasive species which r,ta co, e ositiona#.d.sO, .Stability can significantly change the structure of of natural communities is ensured by main natural communities. Removal of such spa- raining their intrinsic species composition cies from a biocenosis and restoration of its including relative abundance of the con original structure may be difficult or unfea stituent species and the structure of caner- sible. It is necessary to distinguish between ic relationships, with due regard for their the natural introduction and dispersal of dynamics, non-invasive species and those induced by
/P_'_o '/n. and/_-. .9_ent o t man. The former should be promoted. s/ c s com/*osition of organ rns derived recrent n of / at_bn of ge, i- i om natt ral ee.osq ms. These objectives ca!!? _gi_.r l orq isms 4_to natural are achieved by maintaining species corn- eeo.rc/#,ons, control of their use in agrosys position and biodiversity typical of natural terns and in forestry. ecosystems under different conditions of . _..s¢o n ( co_'t_,_on,) ofeom exploitation, munz't_' and b/ocen0ses. This method is
e. 9-o ?Jono/ ._r m _.se. )t 'Y'_m used when damages to a biocenosis are so a b_._,_. This method is efficient when serious that its self-recovery is either impos the structure of a biocenosis has not under- sible or time consuming.
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3. Bio/ogical Prlndples of Bic.dlversl Conservation
3..5'. £cosg,.r _.dnclT, Object: ecosystem. Initial scientific premise: a totality of functionally related organisms (biocenosis) and
abiotic components of the environment where they coexist (biotope, ecotope) make up an integral system (ecosystem).
Effective lasting conservation of species and communities of organisms is possible only in their capacity as members of a natural ecosystem, together with their specific environment. The quality of abiofic components (water, air, ground) is considered today as most important indicator of environmental health.
The normal existence and development of ecosystems implies a regular succession of stages. Its dynamic character should be taken into consideration in the elaboration of the strategy of biodiversity management at the ecosystemic level. Ecosystem con servation can be ensured only through the conservation of the diversity of communi- _" ties representing various stages of succession and the total stock of their species.
Main objectives Conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems, maintenance of their environment forming functions. Maintenance of natural processes underlying the development of natural ecosystems. Conservation and restoration of ecologically balanced natural cultural complexes. Conservation and restoration of the environment (abJotoc components of ecosystems).
Methods of conservation:
/ / to and/a uz._y._ offz: , and the related habitat have been de- / off/amz/ /u]at_'aJ"_.,s . Af this level, sfroyed. This method includes habitat re the attention should be paid first of all fo construction as an essential stage of the the conservation and restoration of abiofJc conserevation process. environment. ,_/, /zo Offt_zdi_o+ / co ou c ac
e /ir,/i. es t off.r/eeda/ /t, ro -' d Z iZ? S isnecessary for the maintenance of a .Z _.r/to_,_e.s ua/tA / * t /aml_c- ecological equilibrium in natural cultural
zriu /, Z s'. The protection of such terri- complexes. tories may include special measures for the a Ott..tDw._ o/ o. /.s __,e is in order conservation of the environment, e.g. a when restoration of natural ecosystems is ban on a specified physical or chemical ira unfeasible, e.g. in agricultural, urban, and pact, protection of unique abiotic features industrial areas, man made water bodies, of the environment (waterfalls, springs, etc. Artificia[ ecosystems with a structure cliffs, etc.), similar to that of natural ones are most sta
._.eco n ("_s tot _zz n7 / off_zt hie and have the highest environmental /_q_/ co,_.s t 'is required if an ecosystem forming potential.
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3. Biologlcol indples of Wodivemify Commvol on
Object: complex of conjugate ecosystems occupying a single land or water area. Initial scientific premise: territorial complex arises at a territory having a unique history
and harbouring interrelated ecosystems.
Biodiversity conservation within territorial complexes of ecosystems requires to fake info account the following data:
distribution of biodiversity objects through the territory; total area of nature ecosystems; spatial structure of populations, species, ecosystems; minimal areas for sustainable existence of natural biocenoses and ecosystems; minimal areas for existence of particular individuals, families and populations of pro tected species, including the requirement of the conservation of various seasonal habitats.
Main objectives Conservation of territorial complexes of ecosystems. Conservation of the diversity of natural ecosystems and their spatial structure within the territorial complex. Conservation of the diversify of ecological}y balanced natural-cultural complexes.
Methods of conservation:
-r otl Z/da u th a to troads, as well as other non reclamated ob/_"t eso bio cot e rJattbn . Plan- lands; ning of socio economic developments at conservation of natural barriers be
administrative territories (e.g. the siting of tween populations, species and ecosys engineering works such as construction of terns; their recovery if they are disturbed roadways and other linear structures, allot by men.
menf of land, efc. ) should fake into consid e C atio oatddm_do t o t/n eration the needs of biodiversity conser uJor_cofs/ c/al/q _rotec d natural nd vation including protection of species and Ai orica cultural tart/torts udtA a ) j er ecosystem diversify, integrity of territoral ant/ rotective regime. Compexes of ac complexes of ecosystems, etc. osystems may be conserved within the
/4_u of eas_] r z e cot _- bounds of large specially protected terri- o'att._,n oaurt $l st b uS ofbio ea i tortes. Smaller territories having this sta /J_eco[oglJcaZ eq orbast . Any antic tus are designed to protect individual ac /pared impact on biological systems should osystems or their constituent elements take into consideration their size and integ (e.g. nature sanctuaries and natural mon rity; in other words, it should be planned uments). Natural ecosystems, ecological by the basin or ecoregional principle and ly balanced natural cultural complexes, supplement admlnistrative ferritorial plan and their elements at specialy protected ning. territories should be connected by eco
·/] a rcon rrJatdon andr_o logical corridors established on specially ZO tl._l,O Of/ .O/W./ t t Z$, $fi.e afioted and managed lands such as right
co.cv/ t ar: of ways and others used by a public ufili- prevention of fragmentation of natural fy or man made construction. The net
ecosystems by organization of ecological work of specially protected natural terri corridors (including the establishment of tortes must ensure protection of the dj special regime of land use on the rights of versity end integrity of territorial complex way around engineer constructions and es of conjugate ecosystems.
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3.BiolagicalPrindplesof BiodiversityConservation
3.7. 8ioAeric Yrinci/de Object: the biosphere. Initial scientific premise: species and ecosystem diversity supports biospheric processes
and ensures functioning of biosphere as an integral system.
A global decline in species and ecosystem diversity affects spatial integrity of the biosphere and thus undermines the ability of the Earth's biosystems fo perform their functions.
Main objectives Conservation of the global ecosystem (biosphere). Conservation of global species diversity. Conservation of global ecosystem diversity.
Methods of conservation £/.abo.,,' t n_.,d tat_,n ofZn £laboratlbnand nta6on of OS0, Z _._- a d /.eva/ / t/
global, regionaland nalionalslratog sIBr grarason conso at n of $] c bio e I conso xation. Convention on naO,o-odm/_. Such programs must Biological Diversity gave impetus fo the be primarily targeted at the objects most development of a global biodiversity con important for the conservation of global servation system. The Convention provides biodiversity and may be implemeneted at a a framework for international co ordination global or regional levels. of principles and approaches to biodiversi- artt ation kee/u the 2_ICJII' fy conservation. .P-P d_and other international lists of rare
e.?ntao tt nodag oo" ntsonbiod, o'- and threatened plants and animals aimed at Mz?/cal r_-t at_na lcont/ oJof#zel l identification of live organisms most vulera / tat n. The basic objective of rele- ble globally or regionally. vant international agreements is to ensure /ur t o]°globcd qr_Jor olP o conservation of the systems most important cz;a/ l// o c dz_t itorl sincluding bio for the normal functioning of the biosphere sphere reserves and other systems of spa or to improve control over human activities cially protected natural and historico cuJfur most harmful for living nature, al territories of international importance.
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4. Socioeconomic Mechanismsfor Realization of 1heSi,u; -gy
4. Socio-economic Mechanisms for [
Realization of the Strategy
/. .rinci/es o£///ication ofSocio-£cono'c ' /_vchanisms to _bclt_erstYq Oonservattbn ':_
Conservation of biodiversity should be considered as a government and society priority. If must be included in the system of socio economic relations as a most valu able component of the national wealth and a necessary condition of national and international security.
The Strategy of BJodiversify Conservation should be co ordinated with the strate gy of the transition of Russia fo sustainable development and with the strategies of development of other spheres of the country's life: economy, law, social insurance, culture, education, ecological po/icy, etc. The aims of biodiversity conservation should be considered in programs, plans, and forecasts for all spheres of life and at all levels of state government.
Biodiversity conservation implies integration of norms and principles of nature pro tection info organization of economy and the system of rules of conduct accepted by all social groups as an element of national culture. Successful conservation of biodi- versify is only possible based on developing a clear consensus of all government and public institutions and private companies that may be considered fo express interests of different groups of the population. Such concensus is reached via a series of pollfci- cai, economic, organizational, lega[, educational, and propagandistic activities.
The general approach fo biodiversity conservation and the ultimate goal of the Strategy provide a basis for identifying principles of the application of socio economic mechanisms
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available for the purpose. The may be described as follows.
_-/ / ,'/ ofb , adac tz_.Socio use of biodiversify. Promoting public economic mechanisms of realisafion of fha awareness of biodiversity and problems of Strategy should regulate the activity of all its conservation greatly enhances the op governmental, commercial and public sfruc erafional efficacy of all socio-economic lures as far as it directly or indirectly influ mechanisms available for the purpose.
ences the condition of biodiversify. ,
· S/_/_ o[/_+___/_. Success · 3/_/,___ _/b*o_/_',_q_t_n of Strategy implementation depends on O]eO]e, /aq fl,ub/./c an qoo_e_p ta.l :_ efficient partnership. A broad circle of o_3'a f,zaz_._ in ecologicaldecision making partners well aware of their role in and in the development of an efficient / conservation of biodiversity and actively system of coordinated public and participating in attaining its goals are government management of natural recruited from non-traditional actors, such resources. as mass media, small business sector, armed forces, frontier guards, resource-extracting and processing companies, non . '/'z_/ c of o a l_ of t /_z governmental organizations, religious tiot h b tl l t $ocl_-_.co confessions, etc t,o_'c $,bsqste s, based on the
understanding that a sustainable existence
· _./__of__- of one isimpossibleiftheotherisunsafe cg t o/ ]_Srtno..t_on the condition of biodi- Concrete decisions mus l fake info account i versify and relevant risk facforsis crucial for both the interests of people and the L the success of conservation and sustainab(e requirements of biodiversity conservation.
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4. Sc,cio.-economicMechanismsfor Rec:4r zlKonof the
f_ _/_ o%accountof dda_ed J_ _ o/groad_go[ t_ of decisions, including both long- sco/ e of afl l ation of th l oo n and
s from biodiversity conservation o / roved so¢io e¢onomic chatti$ , negative consequences of human improving their efficiency to facilitate
impact, implementation of the strategy and attaining its ultimate goal. Totally new
.7 of_atZ_n o/ /'z c mechanisms may be used only if a desired /._ c ion-_w_./._. Making decisions is aim cannot be achieved by the existing fraught with high risks owing to the methods or en they prove inefficient. complexity and instability of socio~ ecosystems and the absence of clear .7 /tg/u ofa, ccou_g oftaor t_,.l understanding of their functioning. The risk /-Z_z/ /-_ so_-_o w .nz_a..o.d
a wrong, decision can be reduced to a _zta san/ ff,ed ] r/ea t/ _, /,,a ex observing the following ertedbyeconomicandotheracfivities. This
principle is employed to formulate admin
the managing system isfrafive mechanisms to realize a system of to changes in biodiversity; prohibitory rules and limitations, econom- presumption of potential environmental ic mechanisms fo regulate economic infer- risks of economic activities implying that ests of various sectors (taxation) and mixed ecological safety of a project be tested mechanisms (licensing, certification). before its implementation is initiated;
precautions or special measures should be takento preventpotentialnegativecon
/ sequences of economic activity for biodi- versity even if a causal relation between them is not immediately apparent.
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¥.2. [_.e9o1/channa
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Improvement of legal mechanisms should changes, amendments, and further target ;_ be in the first place aimed at introducing bi- oriented work of making new laws in the Itf ological principles of biodiversify conserva- areas covered by the Convention on Bi _1
tion into the law sphere with regard for so logical Diversity. _'i_
cio economic conditions of their realization. Systemic consideration of basic require
Legal mechanisms pertinent to biodiver- menfs for biodiversity conservation as one sity conservation include three elements: of the most important strategic resources
enforcement. Generally speaking, the cur od of reforms and development of the Rus rent situation in Russia is characterized by sian legislation. fairly well-developed legislation and poor implementation of the existing laws. Developmentand improvement of legJs.
lotion Legislation Systematization and improvement of
A basis for modern Russian legislation is fha enacted laws on the use of nature re I provided by the Constitution of the Rus sources and environmental protection, Ex- sian Federation. There is a well-developed tension of the existing legislation on the pro- system of legisiatlve institutions, rules, and tecfion and sustainable use of biodiversity prescriptions concerened with biodiversi- along the following lines: fy conservation. The law On the Conser- Adoption of the new edition of the bo vation of the Environment is of crucial tm- sic law On the Conservation of the Environ- d
portance. Also pertaining fo biodiversity ment to meet present day socio-economicc nservation are the laws On the animal conditions and ne ds of biodiverslfy con world, On Specially Protected Natural Ter servation. ritories, On Ecological Expertise, On Mtn- Adoption of the completed Land Code !. i? eral Resources, Water and Forest Codes. ensuring biodiversity conservation in the ;;f There are a number of presidential and land sale-and-purchase process and subse ;', government degrees and by~laws on con- quent land use; it is necessary to maximally :_' servation and use of natural resources and broaden and clearly specify ecologically- the environment. Russia is a member of slanted charges and public land servitude many infernafiona{ conventions on conser- (right by which a piece of land owned by ration and sustainable use of biodiversify one is subject to a specified use by anoth and its components, protection of marine er), co-ordinate articles of the Land Code and air basins, concerning protected lands with those of _-
the law On Specially Protected Natural Tar ; ! i !<
On the whole, Russia has rather a large ritories. ? body oflaws regulating biodiversity use and Modification of the Wafer and Forest conservation. However, many of them are Codes with a view fo creating an up fo
frame documents laying emphasis on nafu date system of state control over the ex i ral resources and have to be realized ploitation of land and water areas by own ; through the introduction of additional leg- ers and users designed to improve nature islative acts. Hence, controversies and con- conservation in general and biodiversity in fiicting situations dictating the necessity of particular.
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Modification of tax legislation in order guided by the Russian law (1995) on genet to increase collection of rental payments for ic-engineering techniques and the Cartage- the use of natural resources and offer tax na Protocol on biosafety (2000) that ragu- incentives to encourage their sustainable lafes international transport of such organ->l,
; use. isms.
Inclusion of biodiversity issues in pro- Improvement of legal framework for the tocols of ecological expertise, protection of public ecological rights includ-
ing the development of various forms of ;, Development of methods for the esti- public participation in making ecologically , marion of the loss of specific resources in important decision, legally bounding prac- r' connection with damages inflicted on nat rice of public hearings on environmental
. ural complexes and ecosystems in general, projects; rules concerning the liability for fha ¢ concealment of vital ecological information.
Further legally enforced separation of
property in natural resources between the Development of legislation ensuring federal government, regional and munici conservation of natural systems and tradi- pal authorities, differentiation of their an- tiona( methods of nature use by indigenous suing rights and commitments with a view peoples. to facilitating the resolution of disputable
issues concerning separable (migrating) Practical Application ofnatural objects. Legislation
Adjustment of legislation concerning This function rests on federal and region administrative infringements of the law in- al bodies of executive and legislative pow- cluding the levy of heavier fines for the er and organs of local self government.
, damage to biodiversity, optimization of The existing legislation needs to be anal , mechanisms for bringing juridical persons ysed with respect to laws concerning biodi-
fo administrative account, creation of versify conservation; relevant reviews and strict legal grounds for the on site confis comments on their practical application
: cation of fools and products of illegal no should be conveyed fo specialists through ture use. publication with special reference to the
danger of law infringement and misdeeds in Further development of traditional leg this sphere for state economy and popula
isJatlng actions. Adoption of laws on the tion.
protection and use of plants, game animals, Specially authorised state agencies for fish, and soil; on trade and commerce in rare conservation, monitoring, and management and endangered animal and plant species; of natural resources, ecological expertise, on the prevention of penetration of alien environmental protection and other gov- species into the country; on the status of ernmenf bodies (customs, procuracy, in-
, old forest stands and wetlands of interna ternal affairs and security agencies) as well _' tional importance, as organizations directly responsible for
biodiversify conservation act inefficiently Development of legislation bearing in and actual(y in an uncoordinated manner.
mind the ecosystem approach and biolog- Coordination of their activities is needed to
ical principles of biodiversity conservation, prevent and suppress illegal or abusive use of biodiversity.
Development of legislation to ragu- Law application can be promoted by t late access to genetic resources and shar training and education of the personnel
ing benefits from their use with that in mind in law and biodiversity conservation; al- that Russia may be both an exporter and location and efficient use of funds fo dras
importer of genetic resources. A use of ge ticaJly raise the level of their technical nefically engineered organisms should be equipment; adoption and publication of
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relevant by-Jaws and their enforcement; supervision, correction and adjustment of increasing personal responsibility as slip- relevant technical documentation (meth ilated by the labour legislation of the Rus- ods, standards, regulations, norms, etc.). sian Federation.
Bringing to account of the perpetrator or perpetrators and imposing punishment
Law-enforcement by administrative commissions, inspections To-day, the Iow level of Jaw enforcement or courts. Improvement of court practices
is a burning legal problem. Nature protec as regards cases, suits, and complaints of tion suffers more seriously than other citizens and non governmental organiza spheres from the inadequate Jaw-enforce tions, elaboration of legislative strategies ment because it is far from being a major pertinent fo the infringement of Jaw on con priority of law-enforcement bodies, servation and use of biodiversity, more effi
They are now confronted with a task of cient putting into effect court orders con- building up a sysfemoforganizafional, tach- cerning environment-related cases to en- nical, economic, and ideological measures sure inevitable legal responsibility for ecu- which must ensure inevitable responsibility logically significant violations or abuses of for any violation of ecological legislation or the Jaw. The following forms of responsibiJ-
damage inflicted on living nature, To en ity are distinguished: :, hance the efficiency of law-enforcement, it administrative the system of fines needs :_ is very important fo raise the level of ecu- improvement; logical and legaT education of the popula disciplinary fo be imposed not only by lion and especially that of officials and spe nature conservation agencies, fishing and cialists making environmentally important hunting inspecforates but also by all oth- decisions, er relevant bodies including organs of
Law enforcement with special emphasis state environmental control and supervi on biodiversity conservation must follow sion; two main lines. civil improvement of procedures folt,:
bringing actions for a damage to the envi- Control and supervision of nature pro- ronmenf in a court by individual persons
tection by specialized agencies, law-en and public organizations; % forcement organs (militia, procuracy), and penal when the lawsuit requires esfirns other government bodies. More efficient tion of real danger to the environment; crime control as regards abusive exploita- ecologo legal when the Joss of right of tion of biodiversity is urgently needed. Pri nature use and cessation of environmen- orify must be given to monitoring activities tally unfriendly actions are in order; of enterprises directly exploiting biological form is applicable to all subjects resources (forests, fish stock and other ing bioresources or engaged in aquatic bioresources, game animals) or en economic activities. gaged in activities that pose a risk for the environment (agriculture, building, miner aJ extraction, etc). The following measures are needed fo ensure effective control of these activities:
equipment of controlling and supervis lng organs with necessary technical tools and methods for the defection and col-
lecting evidence of an illegal action inju rious to biodiversity; rapid retrieval of information from moni- toring facilities suggesting potential di- rect or indirect threat to biodiversity; general improvement of state control and !?
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I L/ _cOJ_O_c /_c_a_/_s
Transition from the current economic par- further development of the Russiansociety. adigm considering economy and environ It is the only way to modernize the coun- mental conservation as separate activities to fry's economy and ensure ifs transition to the integrated eco-economic approach the modern post-industrial society, to make viewing nature and economy as two inter- Russian goods qua)ity-competitive on the acting components of a socio ecosystem is world market, and guarantee well-being of crucial for the progression of the country to the population. the ecologically friendly sustainable stage A build up of a new economic system is of its development, underway in Russia. Right now, it is very
This integrated eco economic approach important to establish a basis for future high- dictates the necessity to consider econom- ly-technological resource saving economy. ic mechanisms of nature conservation at two Were the current trends reversed, it would _' levels: be very difficult to curb a new rise of re-
macroeconomic level af which national source-oriented "dirty economy and neu- economy is regarded as an entity (with tralize ifs catastrophic effect on the environ
. due regard for international economic ment. links) and characterized by aggregated Investment policy oriented towards the economic and eco-economic indices; priority development of highly- technolog- level of special eeo-economic mechanisms ical resource-saving economy and the at- designed fo ensure conservation of ltv- traction of investors is indispensable for the ing nature, successful restructuring of Russian econo-
my. Consistent ecological policy and implic it fulfillment of the commitments under in-
Macroeconomlc level ternalional agreements, including the Con- The following key strategies are crucial vention on Biological Diversity, by the Rus-
for biodiversity conservation, sian government is considered by the in- ,.; ternational community asa guarantte of for-
: _, "Ecologization of structural fransfor- eign funds invested in the country and a _- marion of economy and reorientafion of ex- move towards civilized legal business as
port-import policy: opposed to ecologically unfriendly activi- decrease in the proportion of resource- ties.
, oriented activities in the national econo- my; increase in high-technology process- Formation of ecol°gically-orienfed ha- lng and manufacturing industries orient fional accounts, incorporation of biodiver ed fo yield a finished product; sity in macroeconomic parameters of the decrease in the proportion of resource country (including, and gross national
i
and energy consuming industries; in- product) and the system of international crease in high-technology science con- mutual accounts. Ecologically orientated suming industries; development of ener- accounts are intended to ensure gy and resource-saving technologies; estimation of the biodiversity increment decrease in the consumption of natural to loss ratio which reflects dynamic trends resources per unit of production; in the nature constituent of the national replacement of technologies and indus- wealth; estimation of quality changes of tries affecting biodiversity by ecological- natural objects experiencing effect of an- ly friendly ones; thropogenic pressure and effectiveness altered export structure, decrease in the of nature conservation measures; export of virtually unprocessed raw ma- estimation of ecological variables indica ferials and increase in the export of high- five of the trends in the country's devel-
; technology products, opment and its stability in macroeconomic Restructuring of national economy in parameters;
favour of highly-technological resource- comparison of alternative ways of the saving production is a strategic goal for the country's development in terms of effec-
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fiveness taking into consideration their and recovery of biodiversity, produce potential environmental impacts; equipment and develop technologies for orientation of the economy towards a nature protection, provide ecological ser-
rise in the finished product output re- vices, and practice advertising with an quired by consumers rather than to an ecological slant; enlargement of the volume of resources assurance of target-oriented distribution ": used and raw materials extracted which and use of revenue brought in by taxa- *_ _* '¢* should be minimized; tion of the exploitation of natural resourc- estimation of the loss of natural resources es for the purpose of nature-conservation. , _. and damage to the environment (leading Transition to direct nature-resource taxa to resource depletion and environmen- tion has many advantages. It promotes sal- tal degradation) in compliance with the vation of resources, conservation of natural _' , recommendations of the UN Statistical environment, and tax collection because _';'', _1_ Commission; makes it impossible to hide the object of tax- ,' 4
estimation of net domestic product (com ation. Also, it helps to accumulate real funds ,,,,% puted from gross domestic product after for conservation and restoration of natural allowance is made for the consumption resources and reconcile commercial and en- of capital used in the process of produc- vironmental interests by stimulating all own- tion) and its dynamics which most ade- ers to rationally use resources. _, quately reflects the country's develop- This reform should be performed gradu- ment including its socio economic and ally in order to give tax-payers an opportu- natural components nity to adapt themselves to new conditions
of taxation. At the initial stages of the taxa- Reform of the taxation system to eh- tion reform, the total revenue must remain
sure transition from the current essentially at the previous level.
indirect taxation (based on product output *'_i_ estimates without regard for the use of nat- Creation of a nation-wide system of ural resources used in the process of pro economic evaluation ofbiodiversif_ duction) to direct taxation of such use (tak of the national wealth. Adequate assess- ing into account the amount of natural re- ment of all functions of natural systems, from sources involved in production). A signifi- the most important environment-forming cant rise in the collection rate of taxes on one to productive, informational, cultural, exploitation of natural resources without a aesthetic, and others. It must be paralleled change of the total income: by the improvement of legislative and me- ;' *
raising taxes on the use of nature resourc- thodical basis, broad estimation of the total es and decreasing them in high-technol- economic importance (value) of natural sys- ogy sectors oriented towards finished terns and their environment-forming func- product output; tion, costs of alternative methods of nature raising tax and amortization rates for eco- use and rehabilitation, prevented damage, logically harmful works and technologies; rent, and other variables. ........ granting tax privileges and soft" amorti- Elaboration of a system of economic eval- *_ *_ zation schemes for resource-saving and uation of genetic resources _,,,, _-' ecologically safetechnologies; estimation Economic evaluation of biodiversity ode- _: of the influence of various technologies quote to its importance for the sustainable , _,,_ ,_ on biodiversity; development will allow to improve the sys- _'_ differential taxation of ecologically harm- tern of tax rating and co lect on w th due re- ful works with regard for their potential gard for the real value of boiresources, such effects on biodiversity; as land, forests, water, commercially hunt? raising payments for the use of natural re- ed animals, etc. sources including biodiversity, permissi- Eaboration and coordination of mecha- ;' .. ble and heavier pollution, disposal of nisms of international cooperation in envi- ,*_._* waste matter and other materials having ronmental protection. Incorporation of the _'_ injurious impact on the natural environ- value of living nature in the estimates of na
ment and biodiversity; tional wealth and macro-economic parame- ,"_'_ tax benefits to enterprises and organiza- ters would reflect its key role in biospheric tions which re-invest profit in the imple- processes and conservation of global biodi- mentation of measures for conservation varsity. These estimates should be regard-
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ed as a real contribution of Russia fo the con- Organization of goal-oriented innova- servation and restoration of the global an- lion funds for the development of resource- vironment when it comes to settling balanc- saving and environmentally friendly indus- es among countries in international transac- trial and agricultural technologies. Establish tions, menf of ecologically-oriented innovation
programs and funds includes substantiation Elaboration of economic mechanisms of their functions and financial sources as
of access fo genetic resources and calcula- well as elaboration of economic incentives lion of fhelr cost. Expenses of such an ac- to ensure their realization. Such ecological cass should be differentiated dependening programs and projects should be imple- on the further use of the genetic material, mented with due regard for expenditures either non-commercial (in research, educa- on resource saving and environmentally lion, health care) or commercial (selling to friendly technolgies involved. Such an ap- biotechnological companies for manufac- proach facilitates the choice of the most af- ture of commercial products), tractive investment schemes
Promotion of the market for ecological Special eeo economic ly pure products, technologies, and equip- mechanisms meat; extension of ecological safety re-
Eco-economic regulation is effected by quirements to the industry as a main instru- mechanisms of stimulation (tax incentives to ment of market competition. This puprpose users of natural resources participating in is reached with the aid of economic, admin- their conservation and/or employing re- isfrative, legislative, and propagandistic source-saving technologies, inclusion of measures, as follows: relevant expenses in fax payment, etc.) and improvement of the national accounting compulsion (administrative constraints, fines system as recommended by the UN Sta- and penalties). The efficiency and expedi- tistical Commission to ensure accurate es- ence of application of economic stimuli de- timation of environmental losses and de- pend on the state of the natural environ- plefion of natural resources; ment, extent of human pressure, regional prohibition of export and import of eco- conditions and economic characteristics, logically dangerous commodities and
The present-day difficult economic situation technologies; of Russia makes ii necessary to give prefer- advertising ecologically pure products
:. ence fo limiting, prohibitory, and fiscal mea- and ecologically safe technologies; ben- sures for biodiversity conservation which eficial tariffs for advertising production of do not however exclude the elaboration ecologically friendly enterprises and dis-
and application of purely economic mea- tribution of advertisments with an ecolog- sures whenever they may give maximum ical slant; effect. shaping the ecologically attractive face of
Main areas of application of special eco- Russian business taking advantage of its economic mechanisms include: involvement in conservation of biodiver-
sity;
,'; Modification of the system of payments development of mechanisms for selling _; and penalties for an excessive or illegal tm- quotas on permissible environmental im-
pact on the environment; fines paid not only pacts fo stimulate the development of for a direct damage to the environment but ecologically friendly technologies and also for ifs aftereffects. Elaboration of a sys thus prevent excessive pressure on the rem of target oriented distribution of reve environment at the level of sale and-pur hue brought in by penalties and its use to chase transactions. recover those objects of biodiversity which suffered from the harm. Incorporation of requirements for biodi
: versify conservation in privatization pro
introduction of standards for ecologi- grams. This implies the establishment of an cally-grounded management of enterpris ecological privafizafion fund accumulated in es taking into consideration the needs of the form of investments paid back to sup-
'_;_; biodiversify conservation, port ecologically relevant projects, amorti-
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zation payments, and profit reinvested by industrial enterprises and companies for fur- ther use in nature conservation programs.
Development of the system of ecolog- ical insurance with regard for the risks to biodiversity. This system should
ensure maximum compensation for the harm to living nature resulting from catas trophes and other unpredictable conse- quences of economic activity;
perform controlling functions including permanent ecological audit;
ensure establishment of special funds by insurance companies for funding nature conservation actvifies and development of ecologically safe technologies.
Promotion of ecological certification and licensing taking into account parame ters of biodiversity.
Incorporation of requirements for
biodiversity conservation into the system of basic principles of economic organization and activity in sectors exploiting natural re
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sources, such as forestry, commercial hunt
ing, fishery, and creation of conditions en suring their sustainable use.
Support (state protectionism) of Rus-
sian producers practicing traditional eco nomic activities adapted to specific natural
and socio economic conditions of a given t region. This measure pursues two goals:
to adjust industrial and related activities to local natural and socio economic con clitions;
to support traditional subsistence econ
omies facilitating protection of biodi
versify.
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lotation Coatio ofSio&ersit
Main lines of work
Orienfat on of the state management mercial companies influencing biodiversity. _! system towards biodiversity as a strategi Support by the local population is an indis
cally most important component of the aa- pensable precondition for the successful im- tional wealth and security. The temporal plementation of any nature conservation scale and structure of the system of state project. Public participation in making eco regulation in all spheres of the country's life logically significant decisions is very impor must ensure consideration of long-term re rant because it has serious repercussions on turns of the conservation and sustainable the development of ecological culture. use of biodiversity which exceed an imme- Equally important for the success of biodi diate profit from its over-exploitation or re versify conservation is the involvement of alizafion of economic projects that destroy indigenous minorities with their experience nature. Also important is the establishment in traditional methods of nature use and man- of a system the for strategic ecological as agemenf. This aspect of the development
s ssment of the most general decisions on of management system is in line with the t_ further development of the country, strategy of democratization and promotion
; of human rights. Structural correction of the manage-
ment system for the conservation and sus Clear differentiation of tasks, compe tainable use of biodiversity. The following fence, and functions between executive and aims are distinguished: legislative powers, commercial companies,
Establishment of specialized state nature social and political organizations for the pur- protection bodies at all levels of govern- pose of efficient conservation of biodiversi ment management, fy. Co-ordination of their activities. Creation of ecological departments in large companies regardless of the form Correction of aims and procedures of of ownership, decision-making: Improvement of the federal environmen- use maximum available information about iai protection service with a view to more biodiversity state and threats for if; efficient conservation of biodiversity. estimation of correspondence of decisions Establishment of Ecological Council to be to the aim of the Strategy; constituted by members of the Presi- account of the specificity of natural bio- dent's administration, representatives of systems; ministries and agencies, large nature re- operative reaction of the system of deci- source companies, Russian Academy of sion-making in case of rapid changesin the Sciences, universities, and non-govern- condition of biodiversity and social-eco- mental organizations involved in prepar- nomic processes influencing if; ing political decisions and recommenda- control of implementation of decisions. tions on environmental protection and This task should be accomplished at sustainable use of natural resources, federal, infer-regional, regional, and Io-
; cai levels.
Encouragement of the joint manage- ment of biodiversity by government agen- The management process must involve: cies and general public. Participation of the a system for monitoring biodiversity and public and non-governmental organiza- socio-economic activities influencing it; tions in decision-making on biodiversity fhe system must be able to actively partic- conservation. Promotion of public control ipafe in decision-making; over activities of state institutions and corn- a system ensuring an immediate decision
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on the use and/or protection of biodi More extensive partnership is need versify in emergency situations; to be ef- ed in the framework of management sys ficeint, such a system must use a set of cri tems for the conservat'on and use of biod'_:_' teria for the identification of priority ac versify to ensure involvement of non-go9 i'_:,. tions and ecological expertise; ernmental organizations, private compa
mechanisms obliging all interested actors nies, and non-traditional actors represent-to base their work on the principles of lng government bodies. Integration of a conservation and sustainable use of biodi- wide circle of partners into target-orient- versity, employ resource-saving technol- ed activities pertinent to ogles, rapidly respond to a changing sit- servation. uation, and obey orders of decision-mak ers. independent control organs supervising activities of biodiversity users.
Territorial management must be orga- nized with regard for the location of natural comminifies. Boundaries of large natural sys- tems (river and lake basins, mountain mas- sirs, etc.) do not always coincide with the 0 0 boundaries of administrative units. This dis- crepancy and the resulting discoordination of activities should be compensated by con- certed actions of management systems at different levels, inter-regional co-ordina tion, and establishment of coordinating ter- ritoral centres.
Elaboration and realization of regional and ecoregional Action Plans for the con- servation and sustainable use of biodiversi- fy co-ordinated with the programs of socio- economic development of these territories.
Incorporation of requirements for biodi- versify conservation in territorial planning schemes, elucidation of the spatial popula- tion and ecosystem structure.
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ducattbn and ropaganda
Main objectives Formation of public ecological culture Encouragement of arts and literature
and elaboration of an ecological impera- depicting the beauty of living nature and its five for all groups of the society, introduc- diversity, love and care of nature; popular- tion of norms and principles of biodiversi- ization of folk culture and traditions having ty conservation into decision-making prac- implications for nature conservation. rices at all levels of management, organiza tion of production processes, and every- Religious education with emphasis on day public life. nature conservation.
Formation of responsible and active at titude of all citizens towards biodiversity Specificity of the work with conservation, attraction of a broader pub different groups of people lic fo ecologically significant decision-mak- For organization of effective work on the lng, monitoring biodiversity, and realiza- formation of public consciousness, it is nec- tion of environmental projects. Raising pres- essary to consider characteristics of various tige of professions and occupations in- groups of people.
: volved in nature conservation. Children. The future of ecological cul- ture depends on how today's children are
Formation of humanistic attitudes to- brought up. Children lack an established wards living nature, development of eco- system of notions and stereotype behav- logical ethics, iour, but they are highly susceptible to a
variety of influences. The most important Promotion of public education and vehicles for infusing children with appropri-
awareness, formation of systemic views on ate ideas are games, books, and films. the role of living nature in the maintenance Young people constitute another of biospheric equilibrium. Raising aware- group very important for the formation of ness of polcy-makers. Public education and future ecological culture; they are readily popularization of methods for rational na open to new ideas. The principal form of ture use and biodiversity-friendly technol work with this group is biological education ogles, with special reference to the role of biodi-
versify in the maintenance of biospheric Main lines of work processes. Members of this group are
strongly influenced by the behaviour and Propaganda of biodiversity conserva attitudes of star performers in show busi-
tion inmassmedia, atpublic forums and cam- ness and leading figures of youth culture, paigns, through advertising with an ecolog- by video, audio, and print advertisements.
j: ical slant. Main methods of work are biological edu- cation and raising awareness of the impor-
Ecological and biological public edu- tance of biodiversity in biospheric process- cation; distribution of environmental and bi- es.
ological knowledge; popularization of en- The main part of the population mid- vironmentally friendly methods of nature die-aged and elder subjects involved in dif use. ferent professions. Their attitudes towards
nature and its protection predominate in Promoting public awareness of the cur- public opinion. Many of them are disposed
rent state ofbiodiversity and potential risks, to social conformism and do not readily absorb new ideas. They choose to believe
Support of public initiatives on biodi- what they are fold by experts, officials, and il versify conservation, rising and promoting massmedia about the importance of biodi-
i ecological movements, versity for the health and well-being.36 Me;
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The most active and prosperous frac- fy and increased competitive ability of con- tion of the population (politicians, business- sumer goods, attractive ecological image men, high officials, intellectuals, popular of a company. This aspect is important for performers and athlets) play a key role in businessmen of different status. the formation of public opinion. These peo- Aspect of prestige: conservation of na pie make decisions of paramount impor- ture is a matter of good form, a token of tance for the fate of biodiversity. The group prestigious and respectable way of life. This is distinguished by widely varying opinions, aspect is important for the most active and They need to be convinced of the advan- prosperous fraction of the population. rages (poitical or economic) offered by Aspect of fashion: nature conservation biodiversity conservation, is fashionable because popular actors, ath-
The clergy and their flock may be carri- lets, and leading figures of youth culture ers of moral and ethical views consistent patronize and encourage it. Many young with the cause of nature conservation; sters would follow their example. members of this group do not readily Moral and ethical aspect: living creatures change their opinion which is largely formed share the right to live with man; animals and :_ by spiritual guides and preachers, plants suffer from humans. This aspect finds
Indigenous peoples and other minori- understanding in children, emotional and ties. Morals and ethics of indigenous peo- religious persons. ples and other minorities are firmly anchored Rational/systemic aspect: living nature to their subsistence actvities. The main task is a subsystem of biosphere; the biosphere is to support and encourage their tradition- exists as long as nature does; the greater ;f al views and practices beneficial for the en- impact on the living nature the lower the vironment and biodiversity, status of the whole system. This aspect is
important for subjects of rationalists dispo- Formation of public consciousness with sition, students, teachers, and infellecfu-
respect to natue conservation should be als. i_ i_ based on the universal concept of integra- Aesthetic aspect: nature is beautiful, it / tionofNature,Societyand Economy, sus- givespleasureand enjoyment. tainable development, and the impossibili- Religious aspect: nature must be protect- ty of human survival without regard for the ed as a God s sacred creation. Most reli environmental health. Evidently, different gious doctrines admit the value of nature as aspects of this concept are likely to find un- an evidence of God's wisdom. This aspect derstanding in different social, psychologi- applies fo religious people. cai and age groups.
Pragmatic aspect: living nature consti- Such a work requires close partnership tutes a basis of healthy environment, a of all actors involved in the formation of source of material welfare and vital resourc- public consciousness, such as mass media, es; the safety and well-being of each family political parties, non-governmental organi- _!_ _'_ depend on the the quality of the environ- zations, advertising agencies, show-busi- '_ ment. Thisaspect applies to the overwhelm- ness, scientific, cultural, educational, and lng majority of medium-aged and elder peo- religious institutions. pie of various social status. Implementation of the Strategy at the fed-
Patriotic aspect: Russia isa great power eral and regional levels should be support whose world role is determined, apart from ed by special promotion programms. other considerations, by conservation of Nature conservation is one of the few the largest massif of natural ecosystems ideas that consolidate rather than split the which support normal functioning of the society; it provides a basis for the unifica- biosphere; biodiversity is a most valuable tion of different social and corporative constituent of the national wealth (at the groups. regional level, it is a component of the unique local environment, traditional life style and culture of aboriginal minorities). Thisaspect is of importance for subjects ex- pressing fervent patriotic sentiments.
Economic aspect: nature conservation is a source of additional income, better quail-
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· Yventontof · Studiesaf structuralaha Development of taxonomic studies: elab- i e . ioaal/za t oleb d a ;i
¢ oration of new methods of systematics; Studies on the relationship between the creation of catalogues, keys, federal and diversity and stability of biosystems; alu regional floristic and faunistic compendi- cidafion of ecosystem stability mecha- urns, cadastres of plant and animal world; nisms and elaboration of criteria for the continuation of serial monographic publi estimation of stability; determination of cations on the Russian fauna and flora; stability limits at different levels of biosys-
_. support and development of scientific bi- tern organization.
_i.j ologicaJ collections. Studies on the relationship between the Development of approaches and math diversity and productivity of biosystemsods for estimation of sub population ge and their environment-forming function. netic diversity and its geographic distri- Ecological studies pertaining to the iden-
_4 bution, tificalion and protection of key species for Development of methods and approach the maintenance of functional potential of
es for the inventory of ecosystem diversi- different types of communities and eco- ty in Russiaat regional and federal levels, systems.
informational support of taxonomic and , g glotlz_e_!o] the Jr-z tific inventory studies, creation of computer maOb_dolog_M ba4r_l r bZad. a--_Yq
' ized databases. Jt aJzitori , % Development of methods for the classifi- Elaboration of the national system of cri
_, cation, typing, and mapping of compo- tarfa for the identification of priority ob
t nents of biodiversity, jects of biodiversity conservation and ese ._ /.b_).z_i /, o/uff. ot d / timafion of their condition.Studies on general mechanisms of biodi Elaboration of the conceptual basis for versify evolution, biodiversity monitoring at genetic, taxa Studies of the evolution of biodiversify at nomic, and ecosystem levels. the territory of Russia. Development of methods and schemes Study and prognostication of enthropo for the organization of biodiversity mon- genic evolution of populations and cam- itoring in various environments (seas, munities of organisms, oceans, fresh waterbodies, soil, terres-
t Sl_./-_ 0/ t_d qnm Ze.r o]e trial ecosystems, parasitic and symbiotic
bioe itq systems). Basic studies of current trends in biodi Development of remote sensing tach- versify and identification of factors pro- niques for biodiversity monitoring. mating a decrease in biodiversity at the Development of methods for express in
% genetic, species and ecosystem levels, dication. >_ Elucidation of mechanisms of action of nat- Development of methods for the estima-
ural and anthropogenic factors on biodi- lion of well-being of organisms in natural versify dynamics in various environments, populations. climatic zones, and natural landscape cam- . t Mo/l.z o_z_l .s ._
: -i_ :! plexes; priority studies of ecosystems ex atJ odoloqical _Z_ ] r/ rote l io of posed to the heaviest hropogenic pres- u d Y , d, c. ,
.;:: sure, /e/ .4_it(. Analysis of influence of alien species on -Identification of rare and endangered spe- biodiversity and role of invasions in biodi- cies and threatened communities; exten-
versify dynamics, siva studies of their biological and eco Elaboration of short term and long term logical features. forecasts of biodiversity dynamics. Estimation of risks to threatened popula
_; Studies on cyclic processes especially suc lions, species and communities, cessions. Estimation of the ability of eco Elaboration of the scientific basis for con- systems for self-recovery, servation of rare species, scientific sup-
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port of programmes for conservation and and principles of biodiversity conserva- use of rare species, scientific support of tion in legislation. the Red Data Book. Elaboration of the scientific basis for legis
Elaboration of the scientific basis and fech- lafion on standards, licensing, certifica nologies for reproduction and ex situ tion, rating, and audit. maintenance of selected species of wild Elaboration of the scientific basis for legis plants and animals, threatened breeds of lation on the access to genetic resources. ,
domestic animals and plant varieties. l_ol,_tiolz of $_n_ob Elaboration of the scientific basis for con o /nz_/ , / s of bZ0dz_,e-_'_';_/ servation of the most vulnerable biomes cOnsertratio
and ecosystems Development of methods for economic
£laboraNo o[the sc nt c basi r estimation of biodiversity with regard sustoaiabk use ofbio&arsitq for its environment-forming function,
Elaboration of the scientific basis for rat- improvement of methods for the eco lng, quota setting, and regulation (in nomic evaluation of damage to living terms of amount, time, regions, and ob nature taking into account ifs delayed jects) of the use of selected components effects. of biodiversity especially migratory Development of inter-related macroeco- ones. nomic and special economic instruments Elaboration of the scientific basis for the (taxation of fha use of natural resources, replacement of the extensive use of bio creation of ecologically-oriented nation- logical resource by their intensive use to al accounts, promotion of the market of ensure sustainable development of biodi- ecologically pure products, environmen versify, tally friendly technologies, and equip- Development of a complex approach to ment, etc.. the sustainable use of natural ecosystems Identification of areas and conditions for (forests, water bodies, wetland, soils, the efficient application of ancillary eco etc.), nomic methods (optimization of the corn- Elaboration of schemes for the sustainable plex of economic and administrative meth use of selected species and ecosystems, ods).
Elaboration of the scientific basis for terri- £l oration of t s tifie basis for torial planning of biodiversity conserva- the fo tzbn of/ b&} co e tion including the development of a net- education work of specially protected natural terri Development of methods for monitoring tortes and conservation of biodiversity ecological aspects of public consciousoutside these territories. ness.
Elaboration of the scientific basis for con- Sociological analysis of relationships servation ofagrocenoses and urban ar between ecological consciousness eas. (with reference to biodiversify conser-
laborat on ofthe $cl tz_c basl r vation) and characteristics of different rastoratio ofbio&bersitq social groups, activities of political par-
Elaboration of the scientific basis for reha ties, associations, religious confes- bilitation of disturbed natural ecosystems, sions, and non governmental organi Development of technologies for resto zations. ration of selected populations and multi- Elaboration of principles of work with var species communities in land and water ar ious social and age groups as regards eco- eas undergoing degradation, logical education and propaganda of Development of technologies for the re- biodiversity conservation. cultivation of natural ecosystems and cra- Correction of methods of ecological and orion of their analogs on technogenically biological education at various levels with disturbed lands, special reference to biodiversity conser-
£laboration of sc ntt wallq based vation. kgZ latke cAa_Z_ of bzb&be_l_ Publication of an infer disciplinary ency conset att, bn clopaedic dictionary of terms and con-
Elaboration of the scientific basis for the ceps related to conservation of biodiver
incorporation of ecosystem approach sity.
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*/.7./ntorth 9 / b&erxtt/
In Russia, information on biological re- In Russia, high diversity and complexity sources used in agriculture, forestry, fish- of objects of monitoring coupled to ery, and commercial hunting, on the activ significant differences in regional conditions fries of sanitary and epidemiologic service, do not allow to construct a state monitoring
.- land and water use services, and the net- system based on a single scheme. The work of specially protected natural terri- efficient government system ofbiodiversity tories is collected on a multi~sectoral basis, monitoring (a sub-system of the General However, such a systems does not ensure System of State Ecological Monitoring) can acomprehensivecharacteristicofbiodiver- be organized based of the common sity because different sectors are focused informational space and an extensive on its different parameters, employ differ- network of relatively independent regional, ent methods, and on the whole act in an departmental, and other information uncoordinated manner. The efficiency of centres. the system has greatly reduced in the last years. The biodiversity monitoring system must
include the following complementary sub- Monitoring must provide governing systems.
bodies, research institutes, non-govern- Federal information and analytical biodi- mental organizations, commercial compa- versify centre coordinating collection, nies, and general public with the informa- storage, and analysis of data necessary tion on the current stand and trends of biodi- for the decision-making at the federal lev- versify. Concrete tasks and organizational el and the fulfillment of international corn- forms of the monitoring system as well as mitments of the Russiangovernment con- the use of its results depend on the object cerning biodiversity conservation. of monitoring and the way it functions. Time Regional systems of biodiversity monitor- ly biodiversity information allows for rapid lng with the involvement of local nature and adequate correction of biosystem con- reserves and biological stations. These ditions and socio-economic processes influ- systems must ensure informational sup- encing them. The most general information port for the management actions at the on biodiversity should be incorporated into regional level, collection and preparation a national report on the environmental situ- of information for the federal information ation, centre.
Sectoral monitoring systems in agricul-
Main objectives ture, forestry, fishery, hunting, sanitaryepidemiologic service, water economy, Inventory of biodiversity at population, and a network of specially protected nat-
species and ecosystem levels; soil uralferritories. inventory. Identification and estimation of Information system on genetic resourc- the most valuable, rare and threatened es. objects of biodiversity and soils. Data analysis system on land use and soils. Biodiversity inventory is in the first place Data analysis system on abiotic compo- needed in high-risk regions to ensure rapid nents of the environment with emphasis elaboration and implementation of on biodiversity conservation. conservation programs. System of remote sensing data analysis.
Systems of data analysis for general sta Establishment of a biodiversity tistics (estimation of human impact onliv
monitoring system, organization of lng nature) and monitoring public opin- continuous monitoring and collection of ion (elucidation of attitudes of different information necessary for decision-making, groups towards biodiversity).
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Main lines of work Organization of federal and regional Rational use of remote sensing data.
information and analytical biodiversity cen- Co-ordination and integration of biodi- fres. versify data obtained from regional and de-
e Elaboration of a system of biodiversity partmental information centres. indicators based on characteristics of pop- Preparation of biodiversity monitoring ulations, species, communities and ecosys- data for decision-makers at all levels of terns, health parameters of organisms in goverment management and in all sectors natural populations; elaboration of a scheme of economy; for the siting of observation points over the Training of technical servants and the territory, development of applications of senior staff of information biodiversity cen- modern techniques for the collection of in- tres. formation including remote sensing sys- ferns.
Elaboration of common standards for
the collection, storage, and presentation of biodiversify information taking info account the traditional milti-sectoral approach.
Modification of the multi-secforal sys tem of data collecton in compliance with the aims of biodiversity monitoring including that at specially protected natural territo- ries.
Organization of an information system on genetic resources.
Establishing links with the systems of monitoring abiotic components of the en- vironment.
Establishing links with the state moni- toring system for land resources; setting up a state system for monitoring protected soils.
Collection of information about unex ploited biodiversity outside specially pro- tected territories. A substantial body of rel- evant data can be obtained from research institutes, lay observers, and students.
Development of methods for the col- lection of information about economic ac- tivities and estimation of their influence on biodiversity.
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5. Priority Actions at the Federal Level
5'./. 8/e dd/des of Cdterla 3dentifiation of riorit dctions
A system of criteria for theidentifica- ·Actions, measures and projects lion of priority actions for biodiversity con for biodiversify conservation should servation must be in correspondence with be estimated by three groups of cri- the goal and principles of the Strategy. feria:
agreement with the aims and principles of At the federal and regional levels, such the Strategy;
a system must include the following groups practicability (probability of successful re of qualitative and quantitative criteria: alization of an action or project during the
criteria for the choice of priority objects period of the Strategy); of biodiversity (ecosystems, communi- efficiency (cost fo benefit ratio). ties, species, and populations); criteria for the choice of priority territo ePriorify choice order: des (regions at the federal level and sites choice of priority objects of biodiversity the regional leven( � and territories, choice of measures nec criteria for the choice of necessary actions essary for their conservation; and measures; choice of priority actions in the socio-eco criteria for fha estimation of biodiversity nomic sphere, choice of the ways for their conservation projects, realization;
estimation and choice of projects for the Objects of biodiversify and territories Action Plan, formulation (search) of the
should be estimated by three groups of cfi order for adifional projects. teria:
estimates of the current state and trends When the choice of a single priority of objects or territories (abundance and object or action is unfeasible (ineffec area, total size of ecosystems of a given five), simultaneous realization of a group type, extent of anfhropogenic transtar of priority actions must be considered fo marion, etc.), ensure stability of the system in general importance of an object or territory for (at the federal or regional level depend the sustainable conservation of biodiver ing on the level of decision-making). The sify, e.g. the likelihood of a decrease in available funds should be distributed tak- total genetic diversity after the loss of a lng into account mutual influences be- given species; role of a species in the ac tween these actions and objects (e.g. osystem, importance of a habitat for spe- non realization of one project may con- cies conservation, etc.); siderably decrease the effectiveness of socio-economic and technological crite others; vice versa, successful realization ria (economic and cultural value of a spe of one of the projects is likely to facilitate cies or ecosystem, threatening socio-eco- implementation of the remaining ones; if nomic processes, current measures and is equally true of the objects of biodiver available technologies for nature conser sity conservation, i.e. a failure fo protect vation, necessary expenses, economic el one leads to the impairment of stability ficiency, etc.) of others).
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5..2. Current State of iodtersitq and [ ffleasures o7ts Consecration
5.2.1. Species Conservation
Conservation of species diversity in animals and plants is to be accomplished in the frame- work of the population-species approach.
Species diversity in Russia may be described as relatively safe. Russia remains to be one of the most important regions maintaining the global species diversity.
At the same time, economic developments in the second half of the 20th century have caused marked disturbance of fioristic and faunistic complexes in some regions; as a result, many species fell in the category of critically endangered ones and had to be enlisted in the Red Data Book of Russian Federation.
, 414 species and subspecies (Red Data Book of Russian Federation. Animals. 2001): Vertebrafa 259 (Cyclostomata 3 , Pisces 47, Amphibia 8, Repfilia 21, Aves 126, Mammalia 74; Invertebrafa 156 (Annelida 13, Bryozoa 1, Pelicipoda 1, Mollusca 43, Arthropo da 99.
. /_._z's- 516 (Red Data Book of RSFSR. Plants. 1988): Angiospermae 440; Gymnospermae 11; Pteridophyfa 10; Lycopodiophyfa 4; Bryophyta- 22; Lichens 29.
.,;z'_z f7 species (Red Data Book of RSFSR. Plants. 1988).
/]kq'orfhreats to t3erst 7 th ussta Destruction and disturbance of habitats.
Extensive application of chemicals and industrial technologies in agriculture. Environmental pollution. Over exploitation of natural populations of animals and plants. Acclimafisation and introduction of alien species, self-dispersal of invasive species, plant and animal diseases.
Extensive use of transgenic (as a rule, more productive) forms of plants and animals which may lead to the replacement and eventual extinction of traditional varieties, cultivars, and breeds.
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fhe fflost d_/ arent Consequences o[ d gati e H_man JTm/iact on 8/ logical Characteristics of S)ecfie's
Population decline. Deterioration of physiological condition of organisms. Disturbance of reproduction. Increased mortality at the early developmental stages and in adults. Disturbances of life cycles including migrations. Disturbance of sex and age population structure. Disturbed genetic structure of populations, loss of genetic diversity. Disturbance of species population structure. Non adaptive changes in animal behaviour.
These consequences may differ depending on the combination of factors influencing a given species and specific features of its environment. Collectively, however, they lead fo a decline of individual populations and finally to the extinction of the species.
riorltq ffleasures r S ecies Conservation
In species conservation programs, priori- when serious disturbances of self recov- ty must be given to in situ protection be- ery mechanisms of a population necessi cause the long term survival of a species and fate its artificial reproduction. its continuous natural evolution are possi In parallel with the ex situ conservation ble only under natural conditions. Those of a species, reconstruction of its natural methods should be preferred which mini habitats must be undertaken concurrent mize disturbances to an object of biodiver- ly with the elimination of major risk factors sity and facilitate its conservation in typical associated with the adverse human im habitats, pact.
Ex situ conservation should by no means The ex situ conservation may be a self be considered as an independent problem, contained task only in a special case of This approach must always be integrated protection of species that have been ex into programs of species rehabilitation and tinct from nature and whose reintroduc- reintroduction. Its application is in order in tion appears impossible in near future. the following cases: Such species need to be conserved for
if it is impossible at presenfto eliminate et scientific and educational purposes and fecf of main limiting factors; also as carriers of genetic information when population numbers are at a critical which may be potentially useful in the ly Iow level accounting for a high proba future. bility of accidental extinction of the spe Analysis of socio economic conditions cies or one of ifs populations; for the conservation of a species prompts when the genetic structure of populations the choice of methods for the purpose, their is disturbed to the extent of decreased applications, economic and legislative genetic diversify thus leading to inbreed mechanisms for the prevention of adverse lng, reduced viability of individuals, and anthropogenic effects, measures necessary development of characters alien to the for the formation of public consciousness species; and education,
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5.2.2. Ecosystem Conservation
5.2.2./. £eosf,stens of olar .eserts, , f lodras o_d . me-.ndras
The Arctic is a key region in terms of national interests of Russia and sustainable develop- meat of the whole circumpolar basin. Russia bears responsibility for biodiversify conserva- tion in the Arctic and the well being of indigenous peoples inhabiting northern Eurasia.
To-day, biodiversify of the Russian Arctic can be described as relatively safe owing fo large tundra and water areas supporting aufochfhonous ecological communities and still avoiding considerable direct impact of economic activities.
In the past decades, however, industry has tended fo spread from isolated centres over a larger territory thus threatening the integrity of Arctic ecosystems. Negative anthropo- genic effects on these ecosystems are especially pronounced and dangerous resulting largely from the pollution brought in by the Gulf Stream, large rivers flowing fo the north, and aerial transport from different parts of the globe and accumulated within a relatively small area. The situation is aggravated by the high vulnerability of Arctic nature and ifs weak ability to recover after damage because of Iow activity of biocenotic processes.
To-day, populations of many Arctic plants and animals as well as a large number of unique natural communities, ecosystems, and their territorial complexes are in critical if not cata strophic condition and require urgent protective measures at the federal level.
Major threats to biodiversity of Arctic ecosystems
Environmental pollution from the follow Extremely poor government control over lng sources: the use of biodiversity in fha Arctic, inef- smelters in Norilsk, Pechenganikel, fecfive protection of Arctic nature re-
Severonikel, etc.; serves. oil and gas extraction and transport, ex- Indiscriminate exploitation of natural ani- plorafory drilling for oil and gas in coastal mai and plant populations in the form of areas and on the Arctic shelf; fishing, hunting, and collecting biological global pollution (Gulf Stream, Siberian materials for public and private museums rivers, aerial transport); (the latter activity has been increasingly eaHy nuclear weapon tests in the air and popular in recent years and is especially under the sea on Novaya Zemlya; detrimental for the well-being of rare and nuclear submarines and naval bases; threatened species). solid and liquid waste discharged by mill- Dying out and disappearance of eco- fary holdings and industries, logically-balanced systems of tradi- Industrial developments in the Arctic, un- fional nature use by indigenous peo- confrolled use of off-road vehicles in sum- pies of the North ousted by mining mertime, companies.
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Consequences of human impact on Priority measures for conservation of natural ecosystems Arctic ecosystems
Destruction, alteration, and fragmenfa Recognition of the necessity of a special tion of natural ecosystems, nature management regime in the Arctic. Cryogenic erosion resulting from the dis Elaboration of the Arctic doctrine and furbance of the natural vegetation cover basically new legislation on nature pro- and pollution, tection in the Arctic. Invasion by alien species, replacement of Raising efficiency of environmental con aboriginal Arctic species by invaders from servation in the protected land and wa the south, cosmopolitan and synanthrop ter areas of the Arctic. More attention to ic forms having advantage over local ones small forms of territorial protection (natu- in anthropogenically transformed land ral monuments, "microreserves", nature scapes, sanctuaries) for the conservation of spe
c Disturbance of biocenotic structure and ciflc sites and habitats of narrow ranged impoverishment of food resources for and endemic species, subspecies and animals caused by pollution and over populations. Involvement of aboriginal grazing, people of the North in these activities. Deterioration of wintering grounds and t Rehabilitation of the network of polar sfa- migration routes of some species, tions and reorganization of their work
such as fo include elementary biomonitor- lng. Restoration and enlargement of the fleet of research and patrol ships for the purpose of monitoring and exploration of Arctic biodiversify.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention Arctic regions experiencing the largest human impact and threat to their ecosys- tems include the Kola Peninsula, the lower Pechora River, Bolshezemelskaya Tun- dra, Yamal Peninsula, the Gulf of Ob, south west part of the Taimyr Peninsula, mining regions in the north of Yakufia and Chukchi Peninsula. Most important ecosystems and communities: meadow or forbs low shrub communities on southern slopes; marches and maritime solonchak meadows; zoogenic (first of all, ornithophilous) biocenotic complexes of bird colonies and other sites of permanent or prolonged residence of animals; isolated forest massifs and brush groves penetrating to the north along river valleys and other elements of landscape, borderline forest communities at the polar tree limit on Bolshezemelskaya Tundra, Yamal and Chukchi Peninsulas; tundra steppe communities (Pleistocene relicts in north east Asia).
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Forests are most important for the maintenance of biospheric processes including pre vention of unfavourable climatic changes; also, they are a potent renewable source of raw materials. In Russia, forests have always been one of the main components of the national wealth. Russia has been and remains the most forested country in the world.
Despite intensive exploitation, forest ecosystems of Russiahave been preserved better than those in other countries. During the last decade, forested areas have enlarged due to a sharp decrease in logging and agriculture. However, intensive felling in the past especial- ly in the European part of Russiahas led to a significant deterioration of the quality of forest stands, change in their age and species composition, altered vegetation structure, and reduced biodiversity.
Main threats to biodiversity of forest Consequences of human impact on ecosystems forest ecosystems
Forest fires and related undesirable pyro Decrease in the total wooded area and genic successions, especially in Siberia disappearance of characteristic land- and the Far East. scapes. Biologically unsound felling systems and Decreased area of undisturbed forests. poor utilization of logging residues. Fragmentation of forest massifs. Reafforestation without regard for biodi- Changes in age and species composition versify conservation, of forests, increased proportion of young Allocation of forest lands for purposes un- deciduous stands and brushwood corn- related to forestry (for industrial and ur- munities replacing one another in succes- ban construction, mining, building of sion. roads, cableways, and other linear struc- Disappearance of primary forest commu- tures), nities, impoverishment of tree and bush Technogenic degradation of forest stands vegetation, decline in consort species under the influence of discharges from diversity, disturbed biocenotic structure. smelters, chemical plants, power stations, Impaired or lost ability for self-recovery. and traffic. Decreased carbon sequestration. Illegal tree-cutting and other forms of ille Decreased resistance of forests to un- gal forest use ousting populations of rare favourable environmental factors, wide and threatened species from forest corn- distribution of fungal diseases and heavy munities, infestation by pest insects, increased fre-
e Negative anthropogenic impacts on pro- quency and severity of forest fires. tective forest stands in the forest-steppe Bogging and sodding of large forest zone and its natural communities (long- clearings, upset biological equilibrium of lasting intense forest exploitation and ag- swamp and meadow forest complexes, ricultural use, hydrotechnical works, graz- soil degradation, disturbed hydrological lng livestock, the use of pesticides, etc.), regime. Uncontrolled recreational activity. Disappearance and degradation of town
parks, suburban foresrs, and green belts as a result of inadequate planning of ur- ban development and uncontrolled rec- reational activity.
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Priority measures for conservation of Development of a network of specially forest ecosystems protected territories sufficient for the con-
Development of a long term national for servafion of landscape, ecosystem, and est policy conceivable and beneficial for species diversity. the population. Sustainable forest man Development of forestry strategies and agemenf equally advantageous from the economic mechanisms of forest manage ecological, social, and economic stand menf (co ordinated with international points, ones) giving impetus to the improvement Elaboration of a forest management strat of ecological characteristics of forest eco egy oriented towards conservation of systems and their blodiversity conserva biodiversify as a necessary condition for fion, the existence of forests; development Completion of the inventory of old stands and implementation of forestry tech and promulgation of a law granting them niques ensuring conservation and repro special nature conservation status. ducfion of biodiversify and adapted to specific regional conditions.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: broad leaved forests in the central part of European Russia; climax forests of the faiga zone including large massifs of virtually undisturbed conif erous forests in north west Russia and the Urals; coniferous/broad-leaved forests of the South Urals; mountainous dark coniferous forests of western and eastern Siberia (Yenisey Ridge, Salair, Altai, Sayan, Khamar Daban); coniferous/broad-leaved forests of Khabarovsk and Primorye regions; cedar pine forests (Alfai, Tuva, Khakassia, Tomsk region); urban forests and green belts.
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5. PriorilyActionsatthe FederalLevel
5'.2.2,3. £cosl/stetnsof ,Tbrest and Sea'-.eserts
Steppes and (orest-steppes have undergone the most severe trans(ormation and com- plete destruction by man. Having featured a large-scale natural object in the past, they are presently on the verge of extinction in Russia. Today, small steppe fragments persist in the countryside dominated by arable lands, fallows, pastures, and other elements of rural infra structure. Steppes and forest-steppes in the European part of Russia have been exploited by man and transformed to farmlands since ancient times (40-90% have been put to cultiva- tion by now). The extent of the transformation decreases eastward, with 20-30% of steppe landscapes in Siberia remaining only slightly changed. Where steppe ecosystems experi- ence heavy human pressure, they have virtually lost the ability for self-recovery. Being abandoned by man, such areas fail to develop normal successions of the vegetative cover characteristic of natural steppe associations and instead give room to alien communities. Highly efficient management is needed if natural steppe features are to be reconstructed on these territories.
The critical condition of forest-steppe, steppe and semi-desert ecosystems is aggravat- ed by high human population density and concentration of agricultural activities, and also by the fact that increasing numbers of people in intensified farming areas are no longer seeing steppes as a natural and cultural phenomenon valuable of itself and worthy of con- servation (in contrast to the view of forests).
Any possibility to rehabilitate forest-steppe, steppe and semi-desert communities may be completely lost as soon as the first half of the 21th century unless extraordinary mea sures for their salvation are taken. Biodiversity conservation of both natural ecosystems and stable natural-cultural complexes is an indispensable prerequisite for the conserva- tion of the fertility of these lands which are the main source of agricultural production for the country.
Major threats to biodJversity of steppe ecosystems
Extensive use of chemical products and Destruction of floodplain forests and insu- industrial technologies inagriculture lead- lar groves in the forest-steppe zone lead- ing to: lng to desiccation of the soil aeration zone disappearance of all pieces of fallow land and aridization of meadow steppes. and excessive grazing; ·Over-exploitation of natural populations of inadequacy of agricultural technologies animals and plants in the form of poach- to specific agro-climatic and ecological lng, collecting wild-growing food and conditions of steppe landscapes; medicinal plants (especially their subter- monocultural agroecosystems; ranean parts such as roots, bulbs, etc.), excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides; direct extermination of important species lossofdiversityofcultivatedplantsand ofanimalsand plants. domestic animals; Radioactive pollution of Kursk, Lipetsk, spread of pests and anima[diseases, weed Voronezh, and Tambov regions affected
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the Chelyabinsk region and south-west The following actions are necessary: part of Novosibirsk region brought in by Application of ecologically safe agricul- multistaged missile fragments which are tural technologies, transition from the ex- shed as the flight progresses and fall tensive use of chemicals and industrial down to the ground, technologies to adaptive agriculture:
eAccidental and planned introduction of development and application of methods alien species, pests, and agents of plant adapted to regional and local soil and cli- and animal diseases, mate conditions; Frequent uncontrolled and untimely changes of land use strategies including
burning of vegetation, conversion of marginal agriculture areas, strict regulation of the use of land with a high agricultural potential;
Consequences of human impact on specialization of agriculture in the steppe steppe ecosystems zone, restoration of traditional cattle
Soil degradation due to over-grazing, breeding taking into account natural and enlarged areas exposed to water and socio-economic conditions of different wind erosion. Erosion affects about 60% regions; of the arable land in the European part of cultivation of plant and animal species and Russiaand rapidly developes in its Asian varieties adapted to local conditions; op- regions by virtue of the uncontrolled use timization of livestock structure and corn- of agricultural technologies designed for position; the European steppe zone. optimization of grazing strategies with re- Decline in species diversity and the di- gard for conservation of biodiversify of versity of steppe communities and eco wild plants and animals; systems; disturbed biocenotic structure development of infrastructure for sustain- of steppe communities, loss of ability for able processing and Trade in agricultural self-regulation and spontaneous recov- produce; ery. reconstruction of historical and ecologi-
c Aridification resulting from deforestation cai centres of traditional agriculture; esti- and extensive ploughing, marion of the efficiency and ecological Locust and other pest outbreaks provok- safety of traditional agricultural practices; lng the use of chemicals for their control. development of ecologically stable agro- Epizootics of rabies and other endemic landscapes, enhancement of their struc- diseases in wild animals, rural diversity.
Development of a network of specially Priority measuresfor conservation of protected natural and historico-cultural steppe ecosystems territories. Today only few specially pro-
Sustainable development in the steppe tected natural territories in the steppe zone is possible only if a complex of natural zone covering its negligible percentage ecosystems and agroecosystems is capable in relation to the total area. Sustainable of self regulation and requires minimal man- conservation of natural ecosystems isfea agement to maintain ecological balance, sJbleonly in the framework of an integrat- Special measures to this effect should take ed system of specially protected territo- info account specific features of the steppe ries connected by ecological corridors" zone in European Russia, West, Central, intheformofforestandbrushwoodbelts, and East Siberia. roadside groves, vegetation surrounding
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man made constructions, and other lands bat erosion (Central Chernozem regions). unfit for agriculture. Sucha network must Fixation of sands in dry steppes and semi include the existing nature reserves and deserts (Buryatia, south-east of Stavropol newly created protected areas. The clus- region, and Kalmykia). tar siting of nature reserves is recom- Conservation of steppe ecosystems and mended in correspondence with the dis their species diversity in military holdings. tribution of habitat diversity of a land- Development and enforcement of leg- scape. New nature reserves are needed islative mechanisms for the protection in frontier areas befweeen administrative of steppe ecosystems on agricultural regions of Russia and along its borders lands. with other countries such as Kazakhstan, Ecological rehabilitation of steppe land- China, and Mongolia. Certain lands (es- scapes including reconstruction of typi- pecially former military holdings) should cai steppe and bush ecosystems, ravine be reserved for further designation as forests, insular and floodplain forests, and specially protected natural territories, wetlands. Planning biodiversity conservation must Creation of economic incentives for an al take into consideration structural features ternative (non-agricultural) use of steppe of agricultural landscape, areas. Maintenance and rehabilitation of the ex- Protection of aquatic ecosystems and nat- isting protective forest belts (Stavropol, ural water sources, reconstruction of tra- Krasnodar, and Rostov regions); creation ditional sources of water supply. of new forest belts (West Siberia, Can- Shaping positive attitudes towards tral Selenga depression in Buryatia) and steppe conservation; formation of public protective tree and bush cover to corn- consciousness to the same end.
Regions and objects of biodiverslty requiring special attention: true and meadow steppes of European Russiamost heavily affected by man; dry steppes and semi deserts in the south of European Russia supporting viable saiga populations (Kalmykia and southern part of the Volga basin); Central Siberian andTransbaikalian complexes of dry steppes and semi deserts (Tuva, Buryatia, and Dauria).
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Mountains cover approximately a quarter of Russia s territory; they occur in 43 of the 89 administrative units of the Russian Federation.
Mountainous ecosystems play a unique role in the maintenance of global biodiversity. They are characterized by an extremely high species and ecosystem diversity and support many endemic forms. High evolution and speciation rates are a charecteristic feature of mountain biota. If accounts for mountainous ecosystems harbouring a large fraction of glo- bal biological diversify and greatly contributing to ifs active formation,
Mountains give home to a variety of hisforico-cultural ethnic complexes with unique traditions of sustainable nature use. Mountains are a great tourist attraction and provide numerous opportunities for ecological tourism.
Mountain ecosystems are characterised by high vulnerability to anfhropogenic influenc es due to a high rate of downward matter transfer and high risk of natural and technogen- icdisasfers. The biotic component of mountain landscapes serves as the most important stabilizing factor and provides a solid basis for the sustainable development of these re- gions, However, recent strategies of exploitation of mountain complexes have led to the loss of biodiversify, destruction of biota, and desfabilization of mountainous ecosystems and landscapes.
Threats to biodiversity of mountainous Consequences of human impact on ecosystems mountainous ecosystems
Extraction of minerals and mining indus- Erosion of mountain slopes, catastrophic fry. landslides and mudflows. Abusive exploitation of forests, clearing Degradation of soil cover. of forest lands for the development of Decline in species and ecosystem biodi agriculture, versify, replacement of highly specialized Unsustainable agriculture and over graz mountain forms by invasive species, de- lng. struction of biocenoses, loss of their abil- Over-exploitation of economically impor ity for self-regulation and self-recovery. rant species, first of all mammals. Destruction and disappearance of ecolog Invasion by spreading plants and animals, ically-balanced natural-cultural complex- Growth of uncontrolled tourism, es, loss of environmentally friendly forms Climatic changes, of traditional nature use and management
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Priority measures for conservation of sustainable use of biodiversity because mountainous ecosystems many mountain regions are jointly con- e Elaboration of a national policy of sustain trolled by several regional administrations
able development of mountain regions of the Russian Federation. faking into account specific local condi Further development of the network of t/ons and concrete needs of biodiversify specially protected natural territories in conservation, mountain regions. Granting special sfa Organization of federal and regional co tus to territories occupied by indigenous ordinating centres for the sustainable de- peoples and national minorities with their velopment and conservation of biodiver traditional subsistence economies bene sity of mountainous ecosystems. Such co ficial for ecological equilibrium of moun- ordination is indispensable for the imple fain ecosystems; development of a net mentation of a policy of conservation and work of historical cultural territories.
, ? Regions and objects of biodiversJty \; requiring special attention
the Caucasus; Khibiny Mountains; the Urals; mountain massifs in the southern Far East; Altai Mountains
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Russia is bounded by thirteen seas: the Sea of Azov, Caspian, Black, Baltic, Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East-Siberian, Chukchi, Bering Seas, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Sea of Japan. Considerable portions of their coasts undergo anfhropogenic transforma tion. Some marginal areas of the Barenfs Sea (the Kola Bay), Arctic (Ob, Lena, Yenisey, and Kolyma Deltas) and Pacific (Peter the Great Bay, certain areas of the Sakhalin Shelf in the Sea of Okhotsk) seas are fairly free of pollution. Ecosysyems of the Sea of Azov, Caspian and Blak Seas are severely affected by regulation of large rivers, such as the Volga, Don, and Dnieper. They also suffered from the man assisted invasion of alien spe- cies, e.g. Mnemiopsis.
Natural annual fluctuations of aquatic species composition must be taken into consider ation when it comes to the elaboration of measures for biodiversify conservation in the marine environment.
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Major threats to biodiversity of ments they carry into the sea, eutrophi marine and coastal ecosystems cation.
Pollution by: Reduced numbers and biomass of valu hydrocarbons and drilling fluids during oil- able aquatic species resulting from their field developments and as a result of oil over exploitation. spills from pipelines in the south eastern Sharp decrease in abundance of aborigi part of the Barents Sea, the northern part nal marine organisms resulting from inva of the Caspian Sea. and on the north east sion by alien species. ern shelf of Sakhalin;
waste matter from sea vessels and ports; Priority measures for conservation in industrial and municipal effluents contain marine and coastal ecosystems ing heavy metals, phenols, surfactants Prevention of pollution of the coastal en and other pollutants; vironment by industrial waste and petro agricultural waste containing phospho leum hydrocarbons extracted and frans rus, nitrogen, pesticides, etc.; ported in shelf areas. radioactive and toxic substances from mil Development and application of methods itary facilities, testing sites and bases, to control dangerous alien species. Engineering works and mining activities Cessation of excessive exploitation of ma in the coastal zone. rine biological resources (regulation of Invasion by alien species, catches); implementation of multi species Legal and illegal over exploitation of nat fishery strategies for better conservation ural populations of marine organisms (fish of natural diversity of marine species and es, invertebrates, and algae); use offish ecosystems; development and use of lng gear and techniques undermining ecologically safe fishing gear and tech natural communities, niques.
Establishment of protected marine natu- Consequences of human impact on ral territories (nature reserves and sanc marine and coastal ecosystems tuaries) starting from the extension of
Disturbance of marine and coastal eco buffer zones of the existing inland na
systems resulting from pollution, regula lure reserves to the adjoining offshore lion of river channels and flow of sedi waters.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: Baltic Sea; coastal areas of the garents Sea;
breeding grounds of marine mammals on the coastline and islands of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans; seabird colonies on the coastline and islands of Arctic and Pacific Oceans; coastal areas of southern Primorye and Sakhalin Island; Caspian Sea; Sea of Azov; Black Sea.
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5.2.2.6. fresho ater _,_ cosqste ,_
The quality of surface water in the majority of Russian water bodies fails to meet the relevant criteria despite a decline in industry and reduced discharge of waste matter. The situation is especially serious in the Volga basin, north-western regions, certain regions in the North, and in the basins of the Don, Kuban, Ob, Yenisey, and Pechora Rivers whose waters are described as polluted (heavily polluted in their tributaries). The total volume of polluted effluents emptied annually into the surface run-off is estimated at 55 cub.km in cluding 20.3 cub.km undergoing poor preventive treatment or no treatment at all. Nega tive effect of pollution on Lake Baikal, a World Heritage Site, has never been stopped. The welfare of aquatic ecosystems will further deteriorate while the anfhropogenic pressure remains at the present level.
Major threats to freshwater ecosystems
Hydroengineering works cause degrada eEcologically-unsound water use by indus tion of natural complexes in large rivers tries and other economic activities and and lakes. Regulation of river channels direct transformation of natural freshwa- disturbs reproduction and migration of ter ecosystems. hydrobionts, construction of dams leads Excessive and poorly controlled norms to the loss of spawning grounds for act- of water consumption for industrial, agri penseriform fish, fluctuations of water lev- cultural, and domestic needs. el in artificial reservoirs affect many other Invasion by alien species including their species leading to the drying up of their release with water from ballast tanks. breeding sites. Risk of catastrophic acci- Excessive catch of commercial hydro- dents increases because of the poor con- bionts and poaching. dition of hydrotechnical constructions. Destruction of aquatic habitats by dredg-
ePollution: lng river channels for navigation, sand by industrial discharges; and gravel extraction. by domestic and municipal effluents; Navigation. as a result of agricultural activity; Explosions related to the exploration for as a result of oil developments; mineral deposits and construction work. as a result of forestry and logging; Regional and global changes of climate. by motor vehicle emission; secondary pollution of lakes and water res ervoirs by harmful substances accumulat- ed in bottom sediments; as a result of frans-boundary aerial trans port of pollutants including acid rains (es- pecially harmful for small and medium sized lakes in the north of Russia).
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Consequences of human impact on Priority measures for conservation of freshwater ecosystems freshwater ecosystems e Poisoning of water bodies by heavy met- Prevention of negative effects of hy
als, phenols, hydrocarbons, and other droengineering works, co ordination of toxicants, wafer discharge past the dams of hydro Upset of the balance of nutrients carried electric power plants during fish spawn into water bodies, altered equilibrium ingseasonswithfishindustryandresearch between production and decomposition institutions, improvement of sanitary and processes in freshwater ecosystems, dis technical conditions of reservoirs, bank turbed natural cycles of biogenic ele strengthening. ments, eutrophication of water bodies Preliminary measures aimed at prevent- resulting from pollution by agricultural lng discharge of al( kinds of pollutants into and domestic waste, rivers and wafer bodies, application of re
a Acidification of wafer bodies by atmo source-saving and environmentally friend spheric precipitation containing products ly technologies, improvement of water of fossil fuel combustion and other pro purification techniques, preventive treat- ducfion processes. This type of confami ment of waste wafer. nation is especially dangerous for north Use of ecologically safe technologies in ern freshwater ecosystems because of agriculture and forestry. their Iow capacity for neutralizing acid Decrease in wastage of wafer in produc precipitation, lion processes, use of recycled wafer, Thermal pollution of wafer bodies by cool decrease of wafer consumption, applica ing wafer of thermal and nuclear power lion of fish protecting devices. plants changes their temperature regime Control of permitted catches of commer and promotes eutrophication, cial hydrobionts. Protection of species Disturbance of natural succession of eco and ecosystem biodiversify in natural systems including that by altered hydro complexes through the implementation of logical conditions, multi-species fishery strategies. Disappearance of"key species of hydro Recovery of fha most important natural bionfs leading to degradation of food spawning grounds. chains and ecosystem structure. Prevention of invasion by alien species.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: deltas and estuaries of large rivers; lakes Onega and Ladoga; freshwater ecosystems in northernmost regions; wafer bodies and small rivers in the CenfraI Chernozem, North Caucasus, and South ern administrative regions; Lake Abrau; the Volga River basin, especially ifs smaller rivers; the Ob River basin; lakes of Alfai;
lakes of Transbaikalia Lake Khanka.
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5.2.2.7.._eatland £casqsta/ ,s *_'.'
Peafiands occupy over 20% of the territory of Russia. They provide a variety of functions including maintenance of biological diversity and regulation of the global carbon and water cycles. Peatland ecosystems support high species diversity due to their frequent location in frontier areas between other types of ecosystems. Thiscreates favourable conditions for co existence of organisms belonging fo different ecological groups while highly variegat ed environment promotes spontaneous hybridization, adaptive evolution, and develop- menf of new morphological traits. Peatlands represent the sole type of habitat for many groups of organisms. Also, they form a characteristic landscape element in many regions. Large mire systems provide a source of many indispensable resources including peat and medicinal plants. They are extensively exploited by agricuffure, forestry, and commercial hunting.
Peatland ecosystems have been changed significantly as a result of large-scale, often unwise drainage for agriculture and forestry, extraction of peat for fuel and fertilizers, and ecologically-unsound hydrotechnical works. Marked regional differences in the extent of human exploitation and economic value of different types of mires account for a significant- ly different magnitudeof their anthropogenic modification.
Major threats to peatland ecosystems Changes in nafural hydrological conditions Use of surface and underground water after the construction of roadways, oil sources feeding peaflands for domestic and pipelines, and other linear structures and technological needs. and hydrotechnical works. High recreational activity, collection of Agricultural use and extraction of peat in berries and mushrooms, hunting (in cer- regions with small mire massifs, lain regions).
Tree cutting in floodplain swamp forests Consequences of human impact on at the southern border of the forest zone. peafiand ecosystems Pollution of peaflands by agricultural, in- Conversion of natural peatland systems dustrial, and domestic waste and runoff into agroecosystems and urban areas; from highways, disturbance of natural succession of peat- Disturbance and pollution caused by oil land vegetation. developments. Man's interference with natural carbon Haphazard siting of kitchen-gardens, and water cycles, turnover of other ele-
week-end dwellings, and second homes menfs and substances, hydrologic, cli- in floodplains and other lowland mires in matic, and other regulatory functions in- densely populated regions, trinsic in peatlands.
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Changes in peatland function as a source Minimal reclamation of new peatland ar of natuiral resources and in other eco- eas for agriculture and forestry, promo- nomically and socially important func lion of the sustainable use of the previ- lions, ously reclaimed areas including their re- Disappearance of organisms and groups habilitation. of organisms characteristic of peatland Limitation on the conversion of floodplain ecosystems, and other lowland mires in densely popu Adverse effects on migratory birds asso lated regions. ciafed with peatlands, Prevention of pollution by agricultural and
domestic waste and runoff from highways.
Priority measures for conservation of Control of water consumption from water sources feeding peafians. peatland ecosystems Prohibition of free-cuffing in floodplain
Forbidding extraction of peat as a practi- forests at the southern border of the for- cally non-renewable resource, for fuel. est zone.
Decrease of peat extraction as a fertilizer Priority designation of peatlands of inter- in regions with a poorly developed net- national importance as Ramsar sites, work of mires. Incorporation of peafiands into the sys Prevention of disturbances to the natural rem of specially protected natural ferrito- hydrologic balance of peafiands result- ties at regional and local levels. lng from hydrotechnical and other con- e Rehabilitation of peafiand ecosystems in struction works, regions of their intense degradation. Prevention of negative consequences of Regulation of harvesting berries and mush- oil and gas extraction and transporta- rooms and hunting on heavily exploited lion. peafiands.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: peaflands designated to the Ramsar List by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1050 of 13 September 1994; also, those included in the Shadow List of internationally important wetlands in Russia; floodplain and other lowland mires in densely populated regions; peatlands at the southern limit of their distribution; northern peafiands with poor ability for spontaneous recovery in oil and gas devel- opment areas; peatlands traditionally involved in subsistence economy of local communities.
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5.2.2.0 °. ,.4groecosqstems
Integration of agricultural production into natural territorial complexes leads to the for- mation of agroecosystems which replace former natural ecosystems. Extensive use of chem- ical products and industrial technologies in agriculture throughout the second part of the 20th century has led to a marked decline of biodiversity, loss of ecological stability, distur bance or destruction of historically and ecologically valuable natural cultural complexes.
Consolidation of rural settlements in the 1960s-1970s gave rise to new developments, such is intensified farming in the core parts of new large agrucultural enterprises and re duced exploitation of their marginal portions. As a result, peripheral fields and meadows soon became overgrown by the tree and bush vegetation. In the end, part of biodiversity of traditional ecologically balanced natural-cultural complexes was lost.
A large part of Russia's population live in countryside, and the bulk of food production comes thereof. Hence, the primary objectives of conservation and restoration of biodiver sify are as follows:
maximum enhancement of the ability of ecosystems for biocenofic self-regulation, min imization of their dependence on human management for the maintenace of ecological stability;
promotion of ecological safety; maintenance of agricultural productivity; formation of healthy and comfortable human environment.
Major threats to biodiversity of agroecosystems Extensive use of chemical products and in Maintenance of only few highly produc
dustrial technologies having the follow- five species, varieties, and breeds; dis ing repercussions, appearance of local breeds and variet Excessive application of fertilizers, pesti ies. cides, and other chemical products. Appearance of vast monotonous stretch Pollution by effluents from cattle and poul es of agricultural land. try farms. Soil erosion and dehumification, loss of Unification of agricultural techniques with soil fertility and diversity of soil ecosys out regard for the diversity of regional terns. and local conditions.
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Priority measures for conservation of ly aspects of agroecosystems and their bJodiversity of agroecosystems resource-restoring function.
Conservation and restoration of tradition-
Of primary importance is the transition from al ecologically-balanced natural-cultural the extensive use of chemicals and indus- complexes and agrolandscapes. trial technologies to the adaptive, evolu- Consideration of the diversity of regional tionary and ecologically sound agricultur- and local conditions and the use of relevant al production· methods of agricultural production, breeds Conservation of the remaining natural ec and varieties of animals and plants, optimal osystems, animal and plant species, eco- combination of various lands (fields, mead logically balanced natural-cultural corn ows, forest belts, groves, etc.). plexes. Conservation of the diversity of animal Optimization of the proportion of natural breeds and plant varieties adapted to and anthropogenic elements in agro specific local conditions as a part of cul landscapes; maintenance of the integrity rural heritage of a given region. of natural ecosystems and ecologically Reconstruction of historico ecological balanced natural-cultural complexes by centres of land reclamation and cattle preventing their fragmentation and es breeding. fabfishing ecological corridors connect Promoting awareness and control of the lng them. use of genetically engineered organisms, Development of agroecosystems on the products of modern bJofechnologies, principle of biocenotic self regulation especially in open systems and in the cen with the maximum closeness of bio fres of origin of aboriginal forms of do geochemical turnover, mesticated and cultivated animals and Strengthening of environmentally friend plants.
Regionsand objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: regions with a high agricultural potential in the steppe and forest steppe zones and transition zones on the fringes of the conurbations subject to maximum deferlora tion of the environment where ecosystems fail to support productive agriculture and man s physical surroundings fit for normal life; regions with fairly well preserved ecologically balanced natural cultural complexes capable of maintaining the diversity and stability of agrolandscapes_
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5.2.2.9. £cosqstons of lit'ban aqreas
Ecosystems of urban areas have been maximally changed by man. Urbanization has led to practically complete conversion of natural ecosystems and their replacement by blocks of multi-storey buildings and extended traffic systems with only isolated plots of living nature in between. A gross neglect of nature conservation priorities in the course of urban develop- menf especially in the period of ifs intensive growth throughout the second part of the 20th century resulted in the destruction of ecosystems, sharp decline in biodiversify, and the loss of historically and ecologically valuable natural cultural urban complexes. Meanwhile, con servafion of living nature in urban concentrations is a necessary condition for the creation of comfortable and pleasing environment for city dwellers.
A sinificanf part of Russia's population live in cities, large and small. Hence, the necessity to form healthy and comfortable physical surroundings; ensure ecological safety; conserve the existing natural and natural-cultural diversity. Biodiversity of urban ecosystems enjoys but poor legislative protection; indeed, the ex
isting federal laws do not even touch upon their use and conservation.
Major threats to biodiversity of urban Electromagnetic pollution from transmis areas sion lines, radio and TV stations, and in-
I Construction of buildings, communica- dustrial objects. tions, roads, and other urban installations Introduction of alien species prevailing without regard for the spatial structure of over local ones. ecosystems and conservation of their
biodiversity. Priority measures for conservation of Chemical pollution of air, soils, and water biodiversity of urban areas by motor vehicle emission and industrial Minimization and prevention of all types waste, of pollution. Concentration of domestic refuse. Conservation of natural ecosystems, in
a Uncontrolled recreational activity; de dividual animal and plant species. struction of plant and animal life. Conservation and restoration of ecolog- Noise pollution, ically balanced historically valuable nat Thermal pollution (elevated mean air tern uraJ cuJturaJ complexes. peraturein urban areas). Optimization of the proportion of Light pollution from industrial and street natural and anthropogenic elements lighting, in urban areas; maintenance of the in-
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tegrity of natural ecosystems and nat tural norms ensuring conservation of liv ural-cultural complexes by establish- lng nature in urban areas. lng ecological corridors connecting Strict control of the abundance of synan- them. thropic animals and plants. Construction of ecosystems on the prin Prevention of penetration of alien species ciples of rational ecological engineering aggressive towards local ones and harm- and landscape planning; improvement of ful to natural-cultural complexes. their environment-forming and protecting Siting of recreational attractions with re- functions, gard for optimal conservation of natural Elaboration and observance of archJtec and natural-cultural complexes.
Regions and objects of biodiversity requiring special attention: natural complexes of the greatest urban agglomerations and industrial areas; historically valuable and ecologically-balanced natural-cultural complexes in the cit- ies (garden-park complexes, urban forests and forest parks, squares, boulevards, etc.); suburban natural complexes.
5.2.2.10. Soil Co ucorvalion
Protection of soils as a basic components of terrestrial ecosystems and the environment of numerous plants, animals, and micro organisms must be given special attention in the context of biodiversity conservation. Indeed, the overwhelming majority of the known species of living organisms are connected with soil. The soil cover represents a unique complex of biotic and abiotic components, i.e. a specific type of ecosystem whose normal development is vital for the very existence of terrestrial life. Soil formation is a very long process and its disturbance by human actions may have catastrophic consequences.
In Russia, the condition of the soil cover and soil biota on agricultural lands, on a signifi cant part of forest land, and especially in urban areas and those aUoted for traffic, transpor- tation, and other requirements is extremely poor and in many regions critical. About 56% of the agricultural lands are exposed to water and wind erosion. Both soil erosion and risk of erosion increase from north to south. They are highest in the chernozem zone and slight ly lower in chestnut soils. The area of erosion ridden lands and the intensity of leaching correlate with relief patterns. They are smallest on fiat lowlands, increase on morain hilly plains, and reach a maximum on elevations cut by intermitting plains and ravines. In the European part of Russia, the soils of the Central Russianand Volga Uplands, High Transvol- ga area, the Cis Urals, Stavropol Upland, and the foothill areas of the Caucasus are at the highest risk of leaching. The forest-steppe and dry steppe zones are also affected by soil erosion unlike natural steppes.
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Major threats to the diversity of soils Consequences of human impact on and soil biotas soil ecosystems
Extensive use of chemical products and Degradation and disappearance of natu industrial technologies in agriculture and ral soil types. largeareasofarablelandnccount torero- Water and wind erosion leading to the sion-related degradation of the soil coy disappearance of the most productive er, transformation and disappearance of surface soil layers and sometimes to the natural soils, degradation and death of complete destruction of soil and its bio- their biota. During the last 50 years, the fa. rate of erosional processes has increased Dehumification, i.e. decreased humus 30-fold. Agricultural lands constitute content on arable lands compared with 11% of all land resources in terms of area, normal values, due not only to erosion and 6.8% of them are arable lands, but also to accelerated mineralization and Soil pollution by industrial waste, motor enhanced nutrient extraction by crops. vehicle emission, effluents from cattle Suppression of soil biota and sterilization breeding farms, pesticides, radionuclid- of soils. es, oil and other hydrocarbones, and Soil acidification caused by the applica- domestic refuse, tion of acidic mineral fertilizers to lime- Degradation of forests communities leads poor soils. to soil erosion in mountain and arid re Deterioration of soil physical properties gions and to bogging in the north. Inad- (increased compactness, decreased po- equate logging techniques are responsi- rosity and penetrability). hie for the destruction of forest litter and Secondary soil salinization and alkaliniza- soil. tion resulting from irrigation. Both drainage of wetlands and bogging Loss of valuable properties of the soil on in the absence of adequate drainage ameliorated lands due to upwelling of schedule and techniques lead to the up- ground water, bogging, and secondary set of regional water balance, intensive salinity related to the lack of reconsfruc soil mineralization, and destruction of tion of ameliorative systems. peat massifs. Deserfification, formation of open areas Non-sustainable irrigation leading to the of sand and shifting sands (documented saturation of the soil by water and fo soil in 26 administrative regions of the P,us salinity, sian Federation). Flooding {ands upstream from dams. Lacking reconstruction of soil ameliora- tion systems installed in previous years. Environmentally unfriendly activities (ever increasing use of off-road vehicles, oil pollution in the permafrost zone lead . lng to heavy erosion and decomposition of the thin surface layer of northern soils). Allotment of land for construction works and mining and its degradation (a total area of such land has thus far been rela-
tively small but rapidly grows now) :: i_ invasion of soils by pests and agents of f _, infectious plant diseases.
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Priority measures for conservation of Transition from the excessive use of chem soil ecosystems ical products and industrial technologies
Conservation of biodlversity and stabiii in agriculture to ecologically sound adap fy of ecological systems requires an ade five land use. quate and sustainable proportion of various Compilation and publication of the Red lands including specially protected natural Data Book of especially valuable and rare areas and lands used for a variety of purpos soils and their biofas. Organization of di es (land reclamation, ameliorative agricul rect and indirect protection of soil objects. lure, livestock breeding and grazing , for Elaboration of a national system of moni- estry, etc.). Ali economic and protective toring protected soils. Elaboration of measures should be thorougly differenfiat those sections in the Land Cadaster of the ed in accordance with zonal and regional Russian Federation and its administrative characteristics of the soil cover, regions which concern soil protection.
Elaboration of a national policy of soil pro Consideration of the criteria for soil pro tecfion. Improvement of mechanisms for fecfion in planning the network of spe inter secforal co ordination and adoption cially protected natural territories. Set- of the Complex Acflon Plan of soil use and ting up soil sanctuaries, reserves, and soil protection, natural monuments.
Regionsand objects of biodiversity requiring specialattention: soils of the forest steppe zone (dark grey forest soils including those with a second- ary humic horizon; forest steppe chernozems); soils of the steppes zone (chernozems and amorphous solonefz, black-meadow soils and meadow solonetz); soils of dry steppes and semi deserts (dark chestnut micellary-carbonates, dark chestnut farinaceous carbonates, dark-chestnut and resting-carbonates, chestnut, and light-chestnut soils); soil complexes of dry steppes (chestnut soil, solonefz and solonchak); soils of wetlands, swamp soils in the upper reaches of rivers.
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5.3. riert?q £cosqtemsand egtbs ithS cial Oonio of Siodtersit Ooeration
At the federal level, the main attention should be paid fo the groups of species and ecosystems which are either threatened or crucial for conservation of national and global biodiversify. This goal requires co-ordination of relevant measures within the country and at the international level. Main regions of biodiversity conservation are also identified be- low.
5.3.1. Priority Species The following groups of species require special attention:
rare and endangered species; migratory species; commercially exploited species; species endemic fo Russia; rare and threatened breeds of domestic animals and varieties of plants.
are and endangered Rare and threatened species are those facing the threat of extinction or decline of
their abundance and range due to effect of economic activities and also species po- tentially vulnerable to this effect by virtue of their biological characteristics (naturally rare, narrow-ranged, and relict). These species require special measures of protec- tion and monitoring. Certain rare species are legally protected by elisting them in the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, an official legislative document. National Strat- egy for conservation of these species has been elaborated in Russia.
/graton/ s/ ces These species need special attention because they depend on a wide range of
seasonal habitats often situated far from one another and sometimes in different coun-
tries. Moreover, these animals are especially vulnerable fo edverse impacts during migrations, and their increased mortality in this period needs to be compensated. Conservation of these species requires inter-regional and international co-ordination of relevant protective measures and setting quotas on their catch or harvest.
Coe erci_ !Zf. e.r/doited s ec Species exploited for commercial purposes or household use should be consid-
ered as priority objects of conservation for the following reasons: permanent pressure and numerous forms of exemption from nature influencing not only the abundance but also the antra-population and infraspecific structure of the species; probability of escape of commercial exploitation from the government control, risk of excessive and/or destructive exploitation; high commercial value of these species; _. their importance for the existence of national minorities and maintenance of their culturaltraditions. Conservation of economically important species is ensured by using methods and !_ :
technologies of sustainable exploitation and strict control of commercial activities and _: _.population condition. ,
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S/_ec_sende_a_ to _ussia These species are designated as priority species because Russia bears exclusive
responsibility for their conservation. Many endemic species have narrow ranges and are rare or endangered which gives reason for special attention to their present sta- tus.
ff_areand threatened breeds of domesticam'realsand vanLott_o]e /danes
These species are priority objects of conservation for the following reasons: any organism modified by man is a carrier of unique genetic information coding for its inheritable properties (of economic value or not) including yet unknown one that may prove useful in future; diversity of races and varieties is a necessary prerequisite for the maintenance of ecologically balanced (adaptive) agriculture in Russia with its enormous diversity of natural and socJo-economic conditions; it determines the possibility of selection forms rapidly responding to changes in ecological (including climatic), economic and social situation and is therefore indispensable for the sustainable development of agricultute and reliable food supply. local breeds and varieties are integral elements of traditional cultures of nature use ("living cultural heritage").
5.3.2. Priority ecosystems Priorities of conservation of major categories of terrestrial and marine ecosystems de-
scribed as being in critical condition in Russia are identified at the federal level. These eco systems include forest steppe, steppe and semi-desert ecosystems; ecosystems of the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, the Black and Baltic Seas.
Ecosystems of lower levels requiring special attention are considered in relevant para graphs,
.Fo_ _/_, _, and _- ___n' ecosqs_ In Russia, these ecosystems have undergone maximum transformation by man. At present, they persist as small isolated sites and many lost the ability for self-
recovery. To conserve these ecosystems at the territory of Russia, it is necessary to protect all the remaining natural communities, take active measures necessary for their recovery, and develop ecologically safe agricultural and land use technologies.
£cosqste_ o]ethe Cas[dan..Pea, the ..Peao]°d]zov. the 81ack and Baltic Seas
These marine ecosystems are in critical condition due to intense complex modifica tion by adverse anthropogenic factors (pollution, over fishing, invasion by alien spe cies, etc.). Immediate active measures at the federal level are necessary for their con servation.
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5.3.3. Priority Regions and Ecoregions
The following regions require special attention: unique natural complexes, centres of endemism and regions of great value for the conser- vation of global and national biodiversity including UNESCO's natural and cultural heri- tage sites; regions with special conditions of biodiversity conservation distinguished by the com- plexity of problems and ways of their solution where a significant effect may be reached only in the framework of ambicious programs (regional biodiversity conservation strate- gies with relevant action plans).
14nique natural co le es, centres of ende and regio of g eat alue r conservation af global and natia al biod erst_/
Courland Spit, coastal waters of the Barents Sea, the Caucasus, primary forests in the North of the European part of Russia and Siberia, Volga Delta, Caspian Sea, Putorana Plateau, Altai, Lake Baikal, Transbaikalia, southern quariers of the RussianFar East (Primorye), Kamchatka Peninsula, Chukchi Peninsula, Wrangel Island.
3r egions t [th s/ e al cona_'ttbns of biaa rersia/ conseaq;aabn
Primarily mining regions: nortern part of European Russia, West Siberia, north- ern part of Krasnoyarsky Kray (territory), Sakhalin, probably gold-mining regions of East Siberia and the Far East,
._taeo'az_z'#.9 ra 9/ /./x]e_-xzg'/_'e._;one or two dominant branches of industry, with mining employing the overwhelming percentage of labour force; transient popula- tion of contract workers showing _itt_einterest in biodiversity and its conservation for the benefit of small resident communities; high ecosystem degradation rate attribut- able to heavy pollution and direct destruction by mining operations.
/t/_r,._ost./r__ watz;_ _eas_.- improvement of mining techniques, designation of areas of traditional nature use by indigenous peoples and legal prohibition on min- ing operations af these territories, encouragement of contribution of mining indus tries fo biodiversify conservation as a means of shaping the ecologically attractive face of a company.
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Southern part of European Russia . ,_u / / d f_._.' conversion of ecosystems or the loss of ability for
self-recovery, intensified resource-consuming farming, water deficit, Iow per capita income and educational level of the population, large number of religious people, little concern for environmental problems on the part of residents.
/V ,cP_. , 'cra_sz ea. . conservation of ail remaining natural communi- ties; formation of a networks of specially protected natural and hisforico cultural ter- rito_ries and active management of their ecosystems, establishment of ecological cor ridors; exemption of unproductive agricultural lands from economic use for the re construction or rehabilitation of natural ecosystems, elaboration and implementation of water use projects and protection of water bodies.
Regions of concentrationed industry (the southern Urals, Kuzbass, the city of Moscow and Moscow region, etc.)
. erJ_,?!74e9 t ,e /n //_zt_*' s'. high level of man-induced ecosystem transforma- tion, intense economic activity and predominance of energy-consuming industries, high risk of environmentally-significant losses and the necessity of repair; challenging opportunities for the implementation of nature conservation projects.
jJ/ , cta_y c0/ ,v at_/ / .a. .' decrease of pollution and resource consump tion for industry, development of a network of specially protected natural territories, establishment of ecological corridors.
Land and sea frontier areas of the country . / ,ef,, _h),_z]/ eg/. /g /f_zzfT.g_'gs ;inflow of pollutants and threat to biodiversity from
the territories of other countries.
,/J( ce-a_t co/t;r r/aZ_J_ ,e e .s #./,l_.-establishment and management of specially pro- tected natural territories, international co-operation, support of traditional nature use, measures for biodiversify conservation at military holdings and bases, strength- ening of frontier regime.
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5.[ r'iodtyAOions m the Federal Level
5.'/.Chall gi 9 £eoot, 'cadOther'tetzvZt ?_s!'
Development of environmentally commodifiesortheirreleasewithwaterfrom friendly and Iow level waste technologies, ballast tanks. decrease of energy and resource consump- Revision of modern forestry activities lion including water consumption in indus with special emphasis on biodiversity con- try and transport. Development of technoI- servation as an indispensable precondition ogles using resources recycled for repeat- for the sustainable development of forests ed use. Control over dumping of hazard- with regard for their role in maintaining via- ous wastes, hie ecosystems. Logging, reafforestatlon,
Prevention of environmental pollution and management operations must ensure and minimization of harm fo natural ecosys conservation of forest species and ecosys- tems caused by mining especially in the per- tern biodiversity. mafrost zone. Rehabilitation of disturbed Transition to ecologically-sound strut- ecosystems after the termination of mineral egies of commercial hunting and fishing in- extraction. Support of traditional nature use cluding marine fishery. Planning for hunting by indigenous peoples in areas of intense and artificial reproduction of game animals miningactivity.Reduction to a minimum of with due regard not only for species and
a damage inflictedon huntinggrounds and populationnumbers but alsoforthe conser-
agriculturallands, rationoftheirgenetic,spatial,sexual,age,
Transitionfrom the extensive use of and socialstructureand habitatprotection.
chemicalsand industrialtechnologiesinag- Also,potentialrepercussionsofhuntingone
ricultureto adaptive evolutionaryand eco- specieson other speciesof the ecosystem
logically-soundagriculturalproduction.In- must be taken intoaccount.
troducfion of ecologicallysafe technoloi Design and constructionofhydroinstal-
giesto agriculture.Conservation ofthe dii lations,roadways, pipelines,power lines,
versityof breeds and varietiesofdomestic etc.ina way preventing animalmortality.
animalsand plants,cultivationofthose best The sitingof linearconstructionsexcluding
adapted to localconditions.Consideration disturbanceofthe spatialstructureofnatu-
ofthe diversifyofregionaland localcondi- ralecosystems, populations,and species,
tionsinthe development and application theirmigrationroutes,nestingsites,etc,
ofvariousmodes ofeconomic activities.En- Conservation,monitoring,and studies
hancement of spatialdiversifyof agroeco- of biodiversifyat militaryholdings and systems. Formation of complexes of natu- bases,reservationoftheseareasforfurther
ralecosystems and agroecosysfems requir- designationas speciallyprotected natural
lng minimal management for the mainte- territoriesaftertheirrecovery fromthe pos-
nance of ecologicalbalance.Optimization sessionby the armed forces.Biodiversity
ofthe spatialstructureofnatural-economic conservationinfrontierareas.Prevention complexes, ofenvironmentalpollutionby militaryfacili-
Raising awareness of the principles ties,spacecrafis,and relatedtechnologies.
governingthe use ofgeneticallyengineered Prevention(minimization)ofharm to biodi- organisms,products ofmodern biotechnol- versifyduringmilitaryexercises,
ogles,potentiallyhazardous to the envi- Development ofevironmentallyfriendly
ronment or human health especially in open technologies for the removal and treatment systems and centres of origin of selected of domestic refuse and municipal effluents. plants or animals. Development of ecologically safe tour-
Further development of quarantine ism harmless for natural systems. Taking into control practice and regulations for the pre- consideration requirements for biodiversi- veniion of introduction of alien species with ty conservation when planning recreational imported agricultural produce and other activities and installations.
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5.5. evelo/unent of the Xeavork of $)edallq rotected· Jtural, tirtorical and Cultu al rrt?ors
Development of networks of protect establishment of ecological corridors ed natural territories and areas of traditional in heavily impacted regions; nature use. protection of the most valuable objects
of biodiversity in poorly-developed re
Priority extension of the network of gions undergoing intensification of eco- specially protected natural territories in the nomic activity. steppe zone.
The choice of protective measures de
e Priority enhancement of the proportion pending on specific regional conditions: of specially protected freshwater and ma- at slightly disturbed territories with natu tine ecosystems in the network of specially ral complexes occupying large areas, protected natural territories, new developments must ensure minimal
interference with their integrity and/or
Enhancement of functional diversity of rehabilitation, as appropriate; specially protected natural territories includ- at territories undergoing moderate eco- lng nomic development with small natural ec
territories of traditional nature use occu- osystems persisting within relatively small pied by indigenous peoples and other areas, strict and selective protection minorities practicing subsistence econo- should be combined with regulated use mies that ensure maintenance of the func of natural resources;
tional potential of natural ecosystems; at small isolated territories with severely old-aged forest stands as reservations of disturbed natural complexes on reclaimed biodiversity of climax forest communities; lands, specialized measures of conserva territories for conservation of va(uable lion and/or restoration of natural objects soils; are needed. wetlands of international importance; ecologically balanced historico cultural Integration of specially protected nat complexes and landscapes; ural and historico cultural territories into territories for conservation of especially the socio economic structure of a given valuable local objects of biodiversity (bird region, enhancement of their positive in- colonies, spawning grounds, breeding fiuence on the life of the region, encour sites of hoofed mammals and seals, walrus agement of the interest of local popula rookeries, polar fox dens, etc.); fion in specially protected natural ferrifo areas to be designated as specially pro ties, involvement of members of national tected territories, minorities and other residents in joint ac
tivities related to environmental conser
Differential approach to the planning of vation. networks of specially protected natural ter ritories depending on the extent of anthro Organization of research at specially pogen/c transformation in a given region: protected natural territories.
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6. Implementation of the Strategy
6./. fflechaas af Strateg¢ 9hlementaagn, Control and Correction
6. !. !. Action Plan The Action Plan is formed fo promote re- open manner and the results conveyed to
alization of the National Strategy of Biodi- the public through the agency of the mass
versify Conservation in Russia and attain- media. _. ment of its goal. According to the Conven- The Action Plan is realized by joint efforts tion on Biological Diversity (article 6), each of all subjects of the Strategy. Federal and contracting party elaborates national strat- regional government bodies use it as guide- egy, plan, and programs of conservation of lines to formulate applications for budget- biological diversity or adopts correspond- ary funds and substantiate relevant task ing strategies, plans or programs in confor- programs. Projects included in the Action miry with its specific conditions and reqire- Plan are supported by the government, ments. With this in view, the national Ac- non-governmental and international nature tion Plan envisages the following actions: conservation organizations, private compa-
co-ordination between Russian state nies, and other domestic and foreign part- programmes (federal, regional, sectoral, ners. infersectoral) and projects of non-govern- The Action Plan is a document of short- mental organizations (Russian and interna- term planning subject to correction in line tional funds and public bodies) in the area with changing ecological and socio-eco-
of biodiversity conservation; nomic situation in the country, availableidentification of gaps in the activities funds, and progress in the development of pertaining to biodiversity conservation; new methods and technologies.
elaboration of additional plans and pro- A co-ordinating consultative council is set grams and their incorporation into the Ac- up for the development of the Action Plan.
tion Plan. To ensure participation of various sectors _;_i_ The Action Plan should be formulated of the society in the planning process, the
based on the consideration of project ap- council must include representatives of fed- plications submitted by all subjects of the eral executive and legislative powers, sci- Strategy and their selection for subsequent entific institutions, private companies, implementtion. The applications must be funds, nature conservation organizations, collected and Action Plan corrected in an general public, and mass media.
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6.1.2. Control and Efficiency Criteria for the Implementation of the Strategy
Effectiveness of Strategy implementation egy implementation (estimation of eco is evaluated in the course of its realization logical effect per unit of the resources uti and after the completion of individual lized). projects, based on the following criteria: Parameters and methods of estimation are
quantitative and qualitative changes in the corrected depending on the available infor- condition of objects of biodiversity at marion and the quality of Strategy subsfan various hierarchical levels (populations, fiafion. Monitoring implementation of the species, communities, and ecosystems); Strategy is an important prerequisite for its changes in public consciousness, legisla success if if brings about regular data on tion, and economic activities influencing the completed and on going projects of the
_, biodiversity; Action Plan, difficulties encountered and changes in nature use concepts and tech measures necessary to overcome them.
_f_ nologies; A comprehensive assessment of the im size of the network of specially protected plementafion of the Strategy should pro natural territories; vide a basis for the elaboration of further efficiency of measures employed for Strat- actions and measures.
6.1.3. Analytical and Informational Support of the Strategy
Informational and analytical support of the tion mechanisms and those stipulated by the Strategy, formulation of Action Plan and its Convention on Biological Diversity.
, realization are crucial for an efficient organi Another important activity of this centre zation of the Strategy process, is to organize information support for the
Equally important is the establishment of decision making process at different levels an efficient fool in the form of an interdepart and to ensure access to information for al/ mental analytical and informational centre to interested users, its efficient application and function as a link between national remedia distribution.
6.1.4. Sources for Funding Nature Conservation Programs
Reform of taxation policy. Collection of Ecological insurance funds. adequate rental incomes from exploifa Selling licenses and similar benefits.
tion of natural resources. Present day Funds accumulated from fines and suits Russia is a country with resource-orient for damage to biodiversity. ed economy, and taxation with an eco- ·The "debts to nature" mechanism for the logical slant may give impetus to the de- use of budgetary funds in nature con- velopment of high-technology produc- servation in Russia which must be taken
, tion. into consideration in settling debt-ser e Increased revenue in budgets of various vicing obligations among countries and
levels may be the main source for funding with international financial organiza biodiversify conservation, tions. Support by international ecological foun Market mechanisms of the Kyofo Proto dations including compensation for limi col related to quotas on discharges of faf ions on economic activities in behalf of hotbed gases. nature conservation, e.g. in the Lake Funds in trust investments and incomes Baikal area, old aged forests of Karelia, from highly profitable economic activities. and the Caspian Sea, Multi purpose private funds arising as an Incomes from privatization of property inevitable response to strict ecologic reg- including objects of biodiversity, ulafions of investment projects,
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6.2. o4/qu-oaches to the glaborattn of ffdegional Strateg and d bn lans 3r Biodt?ersitq Consemation
Substantial regional differences in natural is an indispensable prerequisite for the suc and socio economic conditions, anfhropo cessful management at the lowest possible genic pressure, and the extent of transfer cost. marion of natural systems dictates the ne- cessify of regional approach to Strategy e_l /__._o_ztlo da datt /tog_tt implementation, z_'facto dz_cffq and 'z_'_ ,_l._.e_.e-
Regional strategies should be based on ob/ec ofbt_._'_s't_./. It is important to the principles of the National Strategy. At analyse the widest range of interfering fac the same time, they must take into consid tors and identify their origin whether pure eration specific natural and socio-economic {y natural (e.g. climatic or geological) or an : conditions of individual regions. A regional thropogenic (even if mediated through strategy may reflect the needs of a given environmental changes, such as depletion administrative unit or those of a group of of food resources or increased abundance ecoregions (river basins, lakes and seas, of enemies). At this stage, it is necessary to mountain systems, etc.) conduct an inventory of nature users and
identify sources of pollution in a given re- The process of elaboration of regional glen.
strategies consists of the following princi- pal stages ,4lna/ s/._ of $oez'o economic aondt ions
(regional peculiarities of economic activity, :i ! _Tntmntom/ofreffional biod re itq a d legislative system, social processes, and
ana $ of/ condl?/.b/ . At this step, it is public consciousness influencing biodiver first of all necessary to estimate the suitabil- sity). ity of the available data on regional biodi
versify and a necessary scientific back- euT___a )_baz an '_ ground for the elaboration of the strategy, the _zt/._n/._ . An efficient strategy is elaborated based on b/.bdz_'dtz/,. Anay the information about the current state of pogenic factors influencing biodiversity. No biodiversity, tendencies in its dynamics and measure for their conservation will give underlying causes, in the absence of such fect until the main data, relevant surveys should be planned situation is eliminated. and conducted.
£m t n oft/ ea,_e._c,q Ydena ieationof/_bn t ob/ectsl r istb sqstemof bio&erst?q a
aon ,t a /._n. The core problem in the elab- andflt'o_"_.re ac tts, including oration of regional strategies consists in ment of representativeness and efficiency e identifying the starting point and the main of the regional network of protected natu- targets that require priority funding. At- ral and historico-cultural territories.
tempts fo immediately conserve everything :_ are as a rule doomed to failure. Rare spe ]a nt cation of/ odt $OdO-eCO.. cies and natural complexes of national and tzot 'c _J z tl necessary for the con; international importance must be given spe servation of biodiversity in the region j_ cial attention in regional strategies and rele- cluding the improvement of re vanf criteria employed fo identify them and lafive acts. elaboration of econom. objects of biodiversity in need of censer- fives, formation of public opinion and vation. The correct choice of such objects cation.
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_ro/ .9_ c a_n / / hon /t_'_hoz_'(including elaboration of relevant ol_,e, t_.o'_l_rbg, odt._e_[tt. / cot ffaZ_n, tools and measures); measures needed their broad discussion, elaboration of new for the promotion of education and for ones, and attaining concensus as regards marion of public opinion, economic and thier application in fha future, legislative mechanisms for fha prevention
of adverse anfhropogenic effects based 'J c/ ol o ds_rconsero a_n on the analysis of socio-economic condi-
of bl o tz/ ob/ ect$. Generally speaking, lions in fha region, available resources and those management modalifies should be facilities. given preference which ensure optimal con servation of a given object in ifs typical en- _._tt,ma_n o]e_eo/oqt._./and atw v._ vironmenf, e_icl_ncl/of the newly elaborated mea
sures.
· con- s t, z_n faking into account the spatial sfruc- [la boration of the regional ction lure of biosystems and territorial zonation. . implies the search for fha sources of
funding, identification of the participants, y-jaed:ol eo concrope_rmsandaroqs and working out a schedule for its realJza
of realization of selected conservation tion.
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' 6.3. ational -
international co operation is one of the agreements on biodiversity conservation, most important instruments for attaining the European Strategy on biological and land goal of the Strategy. The system of inferna scape diversity, bilateral conventions on fha fional ecological legislation is based on the protection of migratory birds, and agree balance of obligations of different countries menfs on environmental conservation. concerning environmental conservation and Also, it co operates in the field of biodiver- their sovereign right fo use natural resourc sJfy conservation with governmental and es. International co operation in fha field of non governmental organizations and par environmental protection is regulated by a ficipafes in many international programs. Of number of global, regional, and bilateral special importance is ifs co operation on conventions, involves a large number of biodiversify protection in fha framework of programs and organizations, and uses nu the Commonwealth of Independent States merous databases and information net (CIS). works. Russia s enormous territories virtually
According fo the Decree of the President undisturbed by human activities make the of Russian Federation No 236 of 4 February country a most important actor in inferna l994 On the State Strategy of Russian Fed fional processes and fha largest region on erefion for Protection of Environment and the planet preserving the biodiversify of Ensuring Sustainable Development, biodi northern Eurasia. In view of this fact, Rus versify conservation is one of fha main lines sia's efforts to prevent threats to the global of the country's activity in the solution of environment must be given an adequate global ecological problems, support from the world community and
Russia is involved in international co op considered in fha development of inferna erafion by multi lateral conventions and fional economic and financial mechanisms.
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6.Im_,_..,d_: q oftheStrategy
A principal objective of international co- collaboration with international agencies operation of Russia in the field of biodiver- and financial organizations in the further sity conservation is to mobilize resources in development of biodiversify conserva support of priority protective measures to tion taking advantage of international ex be implemented in the framework of the perience in this field; National Strategy of Biodiversity Conserva- use of facilities and financial resources of tion. international donors for the implementa
International co-operation of Russia in tion of priority measures for biodiversify _;/ the field of biodiversity conservation conservation in Russia; should develop along the following main use of facilities for the joint implementa lines, tion of projects on biodiversity ,
Fulfillment of obligations of the coun- tion and mutually beneficial sharing try as a party of international agreements applicahon of their results. and participation in the work of international organizations concerned with biodiversity conservation. The following aims should be reached in this respect: '_
efficacious inter-sectoral co-ordination for
the fulfillment of the country s internation- _,-:_,_,. alobligations as regards biodiversity con-
servation especially in the context of the ¢< Convention on Biological Diversity and other agreements on nature protection at the global and regional levels; co-or- dination of collaboration with internation- al organizations with special reference to accounting and information, development of mechanisms to ensure acsess of interested national institutions to relevant information and its rapid dis- tribution; elaboration of systems of measures to be implemented in the framework of inter- national agreements on biodiversity con- servation; involvement of regional administrations in the realization of international obliga x lions of the country concerning biodi- versity conservation.
Maximally efficient use of all channels and instruments of international co-opera- tion for its further devebpment and mobili- zation of necessary resources for the pro- tection and sustainable development of biodiversity inRussia. Thiswork pursues the following aims: J
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Following persons participated at preparation of this text of the National Strategy for biodiversify conservation of Russia: A.A. Alimov, academician, the Russian Acad emy of Sciences; Yu.P. Alfukhov, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; A.M. Amirkhanov, Ph.D. (biology); L.N. Andreev, academician, the Russian Acade my of Sciences; S.N. Bobylev, D. Sc. (economics); S.A. Bogolyubov, D.Sc. (law); V.N. Bolshakov, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; E.N. Bukvareva, Ph.D. (biology); M.E. Vinogradov, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V. G. Vinogradov; P.D. Gunln, D.Sc. (biology); A.A. Gusev , D. Sc. (economics); V.I. Danilov Danilyan, D. Sc. (economics); Yu.Yu. Dgebuadze, D.Sc. (biology); G.V. Dobrovolsky, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; A.A. Zhuchenko, aca demician, the Russian Academy of Agriculture & corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; G.A. Zavarzin, academician, the Russian Academy of Scienc es; I.A. Zakharov, corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V.M. Zakharov, corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; A.S. Isaev, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V.Yu. Ilyashenko, Ph.D. (biology); L.V. Kalakufsky, corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V.G. K.rivenko, D.Sc. (biology); A.S. Martynov, Ph.D. (biology); V.M. Neronov, Ph.D. (geography); A.A. Ovsyannikov, D. Sc. (economics); V.A. Orlov, Ph.D. (biology), D.S. Pavlov, academician, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V .N. Pavlov, correspond ing member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; Yu.G. Puzachenko, D.Sc. (geogra- phy); V.V. Rozhnov, Ph.D. (biology); A.Yu. Rozanov, corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; A.S. Severfsov, D.Sc. (biology); A.V. Smurov, Ph.D. (biology); B.R. Striganova, D.Sc. (biology); V.A. Tishkov, D.Sc. (geography); V.E. Flint, D.Sc. (biology); Yu.l. Chernov, corresponding member, the Russian Academy of Sciences; M.I. Shafunovsky, D.Sc. (biology); A.V. Yablokov, corresponding mem- ber, the Russian Academy of Sciences; V.T. Yarmishko, D.Sc. (biology).
Final edition of the text of the National Strategy for biodiversity conservation of Russia conducted by the coUecfive of experts and consultants under the supervision of D.S. Pavlov, Academician at the Russian Academy of Sciences.
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