Introduction to space transportation

This technical annex to the WIPO Technology Trends Report on the Future of Transportation provides an in-depth examination of the technological landscape within the domain of land transportation. It is a deep dive analysis of global patenting trends in land transportation affording comprehensive insights into those innovations shaping the future of road and rail transport systems. Full details on the research methodology and different patent indicators used can be found in the Appendix to the report.

By exploring patent data, this annex identifies emerging technologies, key players and evolving trends impacting the development and enhancement of infrastructure, vehicle advancements, smart systems and sustainable transport solutions. The analysis extends to the interconnections between these technologies, assessing their potential to revolutionize mobility, improve efficiency and drive economic and environmental sustainability across the transportation sector.

This annex serves as a valuable resource for those stakeholders – including policymakers, industry leaders, researchers and innovators – seeking to understand the trajectory of technological advancements and their implications for the future of land transportation.

Overview of space transportation

Space transportation involves the movement of people, goods and satellites beyond the Earth's atmosphere, primarily using rockets and spacecraft. ⁽¹⁾Britannica (2024). Space exploration. Available at: www.britannica.com/science/space-explorationwww.britannica.com/science/space-exploration. It encompasses various vehicle types, including crewed spacecraft, cargo spacecraft and satellites, and relies on infrastructure such as launch pads, spaceports and mission control centers. ⁽²⁾FAA (2004). Space Vehicle Operators Concept of Operations: A Vision to Transform Ground and Launch Operations. Federal Aviation Administration. Available at: www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/Space_Vehicle_Operators_CONOPS_v18.pdf. This mode of transportation has evolved from early experimental launches to modern, technologically advanced systems, playing a crucial role in scientific exploration, global communication and economic activities.

Space transportation is indispensable for the overall transportation system owing to its unique ability to operate beyond Earth's atmosphere, making it a vital link in global communication networks, satellite-based services and space exploration. ⁽³⁾ESA (2005). The Impact of Space Activities upon Society. European Space Agency. Available at: www.esa.int/esapub/br/br237/br237.pdfwww.esa.int/esapub/br/br237/br237.pdf. Unlike air and land transport, which are limited to the Earth's surface, space transport can directly connect distant points in space, fostering global connectivity and scientific advancement. This makes it essential for providing satellite deployment, space station resupply and space tourism, which are critical for both scientific research and commercial endeavors. ⁽⁴⁾Aglietti, G. S. (2020). Current challenges and opportunities for space technologies. Frontiers in Space Technologies, 1, 1. Thus, space transport often acts as a facilitator for other modes of transportation, ensuring the deployment and maintenance of satellites that support global positioning systems (GPS), weather forecasting and telecommunications. ⁽⁵⁾Kodheli, O., E. Lagunas, N. Maturo, S. K. Sharma, B. Shankar, J. F. M. Montoya et al. (2020). Satellite communications in the new space era: A survey and future challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, 23(1), 70–109. For instance, communication satellites launched into orbit by rockets enable global broadcasting and internet services. Similarly, scientific instruments deployed in space rely on space transportation for their placement and operation.

Space transportation plays a crucial role in global communication, scientific research and economic development. According to McKinsey scenario planning, it is anticipated that there will be 27,000 active satellites in orbit by the end of 2030, an almost four-fold increase from today. In a high-demand scenario, in which nearly all proposed constellations materialize, we would expect to see more than 65,000 satellites, including many heavier ones, in orbit by 2030. ⁽⁶⁾McKinsey (2023). Space launch: Are we heading for oversupply or a shortfall? McKinsey & Company. Available at: www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/space-launch-are-we-heading-for-oversupply-or-a-shortfall. Such predicted growth highlights an increasing demand for satellite services, driven by advancements in technology and the need for global connectivity. Regions like North America and Europe will see significant investments in satellite infrastructure, while emerging markets in Asia and Africa will experience rapid growth in satellite deployment. ⁽⁷⁾ADB (2021). Digital Connectivity and Low Earth Orbit Satellite Constellations: Opportunities for Asia and the Pacific. Asian Development Bank. Available at: www.unapcict.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/Digital%20Connectivity%20and%20Low%20Earth%20Orbit%20Satellite%20Constellations%20Opportunities%20for%20Asia%20and%20the%20Pacific.pdf.

Space transport's share of CO₂ emissions is relatively small compared to other transportation modes, but is still expected to grow under current policies. In 2020, space transport accounted for a fraction of global CO₂ emissions. However, by 2050, under the Current Ambition scenario, ⁽⁸⁾OECD. Transport. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Available at: www.oecd-ilibrary.org/transport/carbon-dioxide-emissions-under-the-current-ambition-and-high-ambition-scenarios_266cc8a7-en. emissions from space transport activities will increase as more launches occur in support of growing satellite networks and space exploration missions. Even under the High Ambition scenario, where total emissions are reduced significantly, space transport emissions will still be a focus for sustainability efforts.

Despite a growth in demand, efforts to decarbonize the space transport sector are critical for reducing emissions and achieving sustainable space exploration. This includes adopting Sustainable Propulsion technologies, improving launch efficiency and implementing policies that encourage the use of cleaner technologies. Such measures will help create a more sustainable and efficient space transportation system, capable of meeting future demands, while minimizing environmental impacts. ⁽⁹⁾BCG (2024). Regulating the next generation of satellites. Boston Consulting Group. Available at: www.bcg.com/publications/2024/regulating-the-next-generation-of-satellites.

Sustainability and digitalization are megatrends that play a vital role in transforming the future of space transport. The focus on sustainability drives innovation toward reducing CO₂ emissions and promoting greener practices. Meanwhile, digitalization enhances operational efficiency through advancements in technology and data analytics, making space transportation systems smarter and more adaptive to future challenges. According to analysis by The Guardian newspaper, the space transportation sector, while still currently a small emitter, has significant potential for adopting sustainable practices to minimize its environmental footprint, especially when space transportation as an industry is set to increase. ⁽¹⁰⁾The Guardian (2021). How the billionaire space race could be one giant leap for pollution. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/19/billionaires-space-tourism-environment-emissions www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/19/billionaires-space-tourism-environment-emissions.

The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) has highlighted the need for ambitious policies to achieve significant reductions in space transport emissions, projecting that CO₂ emissions from space activities could be minimized, if the right measures are in place. The European Space Agency (ESA) also emphasizes the potential of accelerating the transition to Sustainable Propulsion technologies and implementing efficiency technologies for both launch vehicles and spacecraft, so as to significantly reduce emissions by 46% until 2030. ⁽¹¹⁾IAF (2023). IAF Highlights 2023. International Astronautical Federation. Available at: https://www.iafastro.org/assets/files/publications/highlights/iaf-highlights-2023-web.pdf www.iafastro.org/assets/files/publications/highlights/iaf-highlights-2023-web.pdf. Such commitments reflect a concerted effort by global organizations to address the climate impact of the space transportation sector.

Digitalization is revolutionizing the space transportation sector, by driving significant advancements in efficiency, safety and mission success rates. A key driver is the substantial increase in investment into technology, particularly post the COVID-19 pandemic, as companies and agencies allocate more resources to digital and tech initiatives. This surge in spending underscores the strategic importance of digital transformation in maintaining a competitive edge. Additionally, smart mission planning and execution tools optimize resources, reduce waste and improve logistical efficiency.

Sustainable Propulsion technologies are transforming both crewed and uncrewed space transportation:

• Sustainable propulsion systems are a cornerstone of sustainable space transportation, offering significant reductions in CO₂ emissions compared to traditional chemical rockets. Sustainable Propulsion technologies are transforming space transportation. Low-carbon propulsion, including hybrid rocket engines and biofuels, aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from launches. ⁽¹²⁾Suhasaria, V., B. Arora, N. Deshmukh, S. Das and A. K. Mishra (2022). Role of sustainable energy for future aerospace application: Comprehensive review. International Journal of All Research Education and Scientific Methods (IJARESM), 10(12), 1477–1494.

• Battery-based spacecraft represent a promising solution for short missions and orbital maneuvers, offering zero tailpipe emissions and lower operating costs. Advanced batteries, such as lithium-ion and solid-state, offer efficient energy storage for spacecraft systems. ⁽¹³⁾Pathak, A. D., S. Saha, V. K. Bharti, M. M. Gaikwad and C. S. Sharma (2023). A review on battery technology for space application. Journal of Energy Storage, 61, 106792. Such spacecraft are powered by advanced battery technologies, which are continually improving in terms of energy density and charging times. This technology is crucial for reducing emissions in sectors where full electrification might not yet be practical, because of range limitations.

• Hydrogen-powered rockets are emerging as a potential solution for long-duration missions and heavy-duty applications. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity or burned in modified rocket engines. This technology offers the potential for zero-emission launches, with water vapor being the only byproduct. ⁽¹⁴⁾Airforce Technology (2023). Environmental sustainability: Who are the leaders in H2-powered rockets for the aerospace and defense industry? Available at: www.airforce-technology.com/data-insights/innovators-es-h2-powered-rockets-aerospace-and-defense/?cf-view.

Automation and Circularity technologies are reshaping space transportation, by promoting efficient material use, smart production and enhanced recycling practices.

• Efficient material use is a key component of the circular economy, aiming to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency. This involves adopting lightweight materials, utilizing advanced manufacturing techniques to reduce material waste and designing spacecraft for disassembly and recycling. ⁽¹⁵⁾European Commission (2024). Horizon Europe: Work Programme 2023–2025 – Digital, Industry and Space. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/wp-call/2023-2024/wp-7-digital-industry-and-space_horizon-2023-2024_en.pdf. Such practices ensure that materials are used optimally throughout the product lifecycle, reducing environmental impact and conserving resources.

• Smart production and robotics are together transforming manufacturing processes, by enhancing efficiency, precision and flexibility. Advances in Industry 4.0 technologies, such as internet of things (IoT), machine learning and cyber-physical systems, are enabling autonomous production lines that can adapt to real-time data and optimize operations. ⁽¹⁶⁾UK Space Agency (2022). Space Exploration: Technology Roadmap. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/64ff28391886eb00139770ef/Space_Exploration_Technology_Roadmap_v2.pdf. Thus, smart production systems can significantly reduce waste, improve product quality and enable predictive maintenance, thereby extending the lifespan of machinery and equipment. Robotics plays a crucial role in automating repetitive tasks, improving accuracy and reducing human error, all of which contribute to a more sustainable manufacturing process.

• Recycling is a fundamental aspect of the circular economy, aiming to recover valuable materials from end-of-life products and reintroduce them back into the production cycle. The importance of intelligent automation in enhancing recycling processes, such as sorting and processing recyclables more efficiently, is growing. Innovative technologies like AI and robotics are improving the accuracy and efficiency of recycling operations, ensuring that more materials are recovered and reused. ⁽¹⁷⁾Smith, J. (2020). The impact of artificial intelligence on recycling processes. Journal of Recycling and Waste Management, 25(2), 57–71.

Communication and Security technologies are paving the way for a new era of space transportation:

• Advanced mission control systems are becoming increasingly essential for both crewed and uncrewed missions. These systems leverage real-time data, advanced routing algorithms and AI to optimize mission planning, reduce delays and improve fuel efficiency. ⁽¹⁸⁾Shah, V. (2024). Next-generation space exploration: AI-enhanced autonomous navigation systems. Journal Environmental Sciences and Technology, 3(1), 47–64. A research survey emphasizes that the integration of AI into mission control systems is transforming mission planning, by predicting space weather patterns and suggesting alternative routes in real-time. ⁽¹⁹⁾Russo, A. and G. Lax (2022). Using artificial intelligence for space challenges: A survey. Applied Sciences, 12(10), 5106.

• Device-to-device technology enhances communication between various systems and devices within the space transportation ecosystem. This technology enables seamless data exchange between spacecraft, ground control, satellites and mission-critical devices, improving operational efficiency and safety. ⁽²⁰⁾Monzon Baeza, V., F. Ortiz, S. Herrero Garcia and E. Lagunas (2022). Enhanced communications on satellite-based IoT systems to support maritime transportation services. Sensors, 22(17), 6450. By facilitating real-time information sharing, device-to-device communication helps in proactive maintenance, better mission planning and more efficient operations.

• The adoption of cloud computing and low-latency internet is revolutionizing how data are managed and utilized in space transportation. Cloud platforms enable the collection, storage and analysis of vast amounts of data from connected spacecraft and infrastructure. According to the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), low-latency internet, particularly through satellite-based networks, facilitates real-time communication between spacecraft and mission control systems. ⁽²¹⁾BCG (2024). Regulating the next generation of satellites. Boston Consulting Group. Available at: www.bcg.com/publications/2024/regulating-the-next-generation-of-satellites.

• As space transportation becomes more digitalized, cybersecurity has become of paramount concern. Protecting space networks from cyber threats is essential to assuring the safety and reliability of both crewed and uncrewed missions. ⁽²²⁾DIA (2022). Challenges to Security in Space: Space Reliance in an Era of Competition and Expansion. Defense Intelligence Agency. Available at: www.dia.mil/Portals/110/Documents/News/Military_Power_Publications/Challenges_Security_Space_2022.pdf. The rise of digital technologies has made space systems more vulnerable to cyberattacks, emphasizing the need for robust cybersecurity measures. Such measures include encryption, secure communication protocols and continuous monitoring to detect and mitigate potential threats. ⁽²³⁾Diro, A., S. Kaisar, A. V. Vasilakos, A. Anwar, A. Nasirian and G. Olani (2024). Anomaly detection for space information networks: A survey of challenges, techniques, and future directions. Computers and Security, 139, 103705.

Advanced Human-Machine Interface (HMI) technologies are driving the evolution of space transportation, by making interactions more intuitive, secure and responsive, thereby improving operational efficiency and user experience.

• Extended reality (XR) technologies, including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR), are significantly enhancing HMIs, by providing immersive and interactive experiences. These technologies are particularly beneficial in space for training, maintenance and mission planning, offering real-time data overlays and interactive simulations to improve operational efficiency and decision-making.  ⁽²⁴⁾Burian, B. K., M. Ebnali, J. M. Robertson, D. Musson, C. N. Pozner, T. Doyle et al. (2023). Using extended reality (XR) for medical training and real-time clinical support during deep space missions. Applied Ergonomics, 106, 103902.

• Speech recognition technology is transforming HMIs, by enabling hands-free control and communication with spacecraft systems. This technology allows for a more natural and efficient interaction, by interpreting and responding to verbal commands. ⁽²⁵⁾Salazar, G. (2022). Human systems integration approach in implementing voice-control of future spacecraft systems. In IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Aerospace Conference, March 2022. Within the space sector, advanced speech recognition systems enhance user experience and safety, enabling astronauts and ground control to operate systems through voice command. ⁽²⁶⁾NASA (2022). Enabling a voice management system for space applications. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Available at: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210022373/downloads/Enabling%20a%20Voice%20Management%20System%20for%20Space%20Applications-ncr.pdf.

• Facial recognition technology enhances security and personalization, by identifying and verifying individuals based on their facial features. This technology is used in space stations and mission control centers for personnel authentication, assuring that only authorized individuals can access certain areas, and for monitoring astronaut health, thereby improving security and operational efficiency. ⁽²⁷⁾Korovin, I. S., A. B. Klimenko, I. A. Kalyaev and I. B. Safronenkova (2021). An experience of the cognitive map-based classifier usage in astronaut's emotional state monitoring. Acta Astronautica, 181, 537–543.

• Touch displays and data gloves represent significant advancements in tactile HMIs. Touch displays are widely used in spacecraft cockpits and mission control systems, providing intuitive and direct interaction with digital interfaces. ⁽²⁸⁾Beebe, N. K. (2022). Advanced onboard spacecraft guidance and navigation console. Doctoral dissertation. Data gloves, equipped with sensors, allow users to control systems through gestures, offering precise control in virtual environments and space operations.

• Head-up display (HUD) is revolutionizing the way astronauts interact with critical mission information. ⁽²⁹⁾Safi, M. and J. Chung (2023). Augmented reality uses and applications in aerospace and aviation. In Springer Handbook of Augmented Reality. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 473–494. Such a display projects essential data, such as speed, altitude and navigational cues, directly onto a visor or windshield, allowing an astronaut to keep their eyes on a task while at the same time accessing necessary information. ⁽³⁰⁾NASA (2021). Virtual and augmented reality technologies. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Available at: www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/virtual-and-augmented-reality-techs. This technology enhances situational awareness and safety, by reducing the need for an astronaut to look down at instrumentation, thus enabling quicker decision-making and response times. HUDs are increasingly being integrated into modern spacecraft to improve operational efficiency and astronaut performance.

To further understand the technological advancements driving these innovations, the next section will dive into the patent data of these technologies, highlighting key developments and trends in the field. This analysis will provide insights into the proprietary innovations shaping the future of space transportation.